1
|
Söderquist F, Syk M, Just D, Kurbalija Novicic Z, Rasmusson AJ, Hellström PM, Ramklint M, Cunningham JL. A cross-sectional study of gastrointestinal symptoms, depressive symptoms and trait anxiety in young adults. BMC Psychiatry 2020; 20:535. [PMID: 33176747 PMCID: PMC7661167 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-020-02940-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND >Patients with functional gastrointestinal disorders have a high psychiatric co-morbidity. This study aimed to investigate and characterise gastrointestinal symptoms in relation to depressive symptoms and trait anxiety in a well-defined population of young adult psychiatric outpatients and healthy controls. METHODS Gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed with the Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale for Irritable Bowel Syndrome (GSRS-IBS). Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale- Self assessment (MADRS-S). Trait anxiety was estimated with three of the Swedish universities of Personality (SSP) scales: Somatic trait anxiety, Psychic trait anxiety and Stress susceptibility. Self-ratings were collected from 491 young adult psychiatric outpatients and 85 healthy controls. Gastrointestinal symptom severity was compared between patients with and without current psychotropic medication and controls. Associations between gastrointestinal symptoms, depressive symptoms and trait anxiety were assessed using Spearman's coefficients and generalized linear models adjusting for possible confounders (sex, body mass index, bulimia nervosa). RESULTS Patients, with and without current psychotropic medication, reported significantly more gastrointestinal symptoms than controls. In the generalized linear models, total MADRS-S score (p < 0.001), Somatic trait anxiety (p < 0.001), Psychic trait anxiety (p = 0.002) and Stress susceptibility (p = 0.002) were independent predictors of the total GSRS-IBS score. Further exploratory analysis using unsupervised learning revealed a diverse spectrum of symptoms that clustered into six groups. CONCLUSION Gastrointestinal symptoms are both highly prevalent and diverse in young adult psychiatric outpatients, regardless of current psychotropic medication. Depressive symptom severity and degree of trait anxiety are independently related to the total gastrointestinal symptom burden.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Söderquist
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikaela Syk
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Just
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Annica J Rasmusson
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per M Hellström
- Department of Medical Sciences, Gastroenterology/Hepatology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mia Ramklint
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Janet L Cunningham
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yu ZC, Cen YX, Wu BH, Wei C, Xiong F, Li DF, Liu TT, Luo MH, Guo LL, Li YX, Wang LS, Wang JY, Yao J. Berberine prevents stress-induced gut inflammation and visceral hypersensitivity and reduces intestinal motility in rats. World J Gastroenterol 2019; 25:3956-3971. [PMID: 31413530 PMCID: PMC6689801 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i29.3956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common chronic non-organic disease of the digestive system. Berberine (BBR) has been used to treat patients with IBS, but the underlying therapeutic mechanism is little understood. We believe that BBR achieves its therapeutic effect on IBS by preventing stress intestinal inflammation and visceral hypersensitivity and reducing bowel motility.
AIM To test the hypothesis that BBR achieves its therapeutic effect on IBS by preventing subclinical inflammation of the intestinal mucosa and reducing visceral hypersensitivity and intestinal motility.
METHODS IBS was induced in rats via water avoidance stress (WAS). qRT-PCR and histological analyses were used to evaluate the levels of cytokines and mucosal inflammation, respectively. Modified ELISA and qRT-PCR were used to evaluate the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signal transduction pathway. Colorectal distention test, gastrointestinal transit measurement, Western blot, and qRT-PCR were used to analyze visceral sensitivity, intestinal motility, the expression of C-kit (marker of Cajal mesenchymal cells), and the expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor TrkB.
RESULTS WAS led to mucosal inflammation, visceral hyperalgesia, and high intestinal motility. Oral administration of BBR inhibited the NF-κB signal transduction pathway, reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α], promoted the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β), and improved the terminal ileum tissue inflammation. BBR inhibited the expression of BDNF, TrkB, and C-kit in IBS rats, leading to the reduction of intestinal motility and visceral hypersensitivity. The therapeutic effect of BBR at a high dose (100 mg/kg) was superior to than that of the low-dose (25 mg/kg) group.
CONCLUSION BBR reduces intestinal mucosal inflammation by inhibiting the intestinal NF-κB signal pathway in the IBS rats. BBR reduces the expression of BDNF, its receptor TrkB, and C-kit. BBR also reduces intestinal motility and visceral sensitivity to achieve its therapeutic effect on IBS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Chao Yu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yong-Xin Cen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Foshan Gaoming Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Foshan 528500, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ben-Hua Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Cheng Wei
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Feng Xiong
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - De-Feng Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ting-Ting Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ming-Han Luo
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li-Liangzi Guo
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ying-Xue Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li-Sheng Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jian-Yao Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Shenzhen Children’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518026, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jun Yao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Jinan University of Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Shenzhen Municipal People’s Hospital, Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liang P, Zhang M, Cheng W, Lin W, Chen L. Proteomic Analysis of the Effect of DHA-Phospholipids from Large Yellow Croaker Roe on Hyperlipidemic Mice. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:5107-5113. [PMID: 28438023 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Previously, we found that phospholipids derived from large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) roe had a higher level of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA-PL), which had beneficial effects on lipid metabolism. However, the mechanism by which DHA-PL from P. crocea roe exerts these effects has not yet been illuminated. Herein, we investigated the underlying molecular action of DHA-PL by examining changes in liver protein expression in control, hyperlipidemic, and DHA-PL-treated mice. A total of 16 proteins, 9 up-regulated and 7 down-regulated, were identified and classified into several metabolic pathways, such as fat digestion and absorption, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) signaling, and antigen processing and presentation; the largest functional class found was that of fat digestion and absorption. We revealed Apoa1 to be a biomarker of DHA-PL effects on hyperlipidemic mice by DHA-PL diet. These results not only improve our current understanding of hyperlipidemic regulation by DHA-PL, but also suggest that DHA-PL should be applied as a beneficial food additive.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University , Fuzhou 350002, P.R. China
| | - Min Zhang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University , Fuzhou 350002, P.R. China
| | - Wenjian Cheng
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University , Fuzhou 350002, P.R. China
| | - Wenxiong Lin
- Life Sciences College, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University , Fuzhou 350002, P.R. China
| | - Lijiao Chen
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University , Fuzhou 350002, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pellissier S, Bonaz B. The Place of Stress and Emotions in the Irritable Bowel Syndrome. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2016; 103:327-354. [PMID: 28061975 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2016.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Our emotional state can have many consequences on our somatic health and well-being. Negative emotions such as anxiety play a major role in gut functioning due to the bidirectional communications between gut and brain, namely, the brain-gut axis. The irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), characterized by an unusual visceral hypersensitivity, is the most common disorder encountered by gastroenterologists. Among the main symptoms, the presence of current or recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort associated with bloating and altered bowel habits characterizes this syndrome that could strongly alter the quality of life. This chapter will present the physiopathology of IBS and explain how stress influences gastrointestinal functions (permeability, motility, microbiota, sensitivity, secretion) and how it could be predominantly involved in IBS. This chapter will also describe the role of the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary axis through vagal tone and cortisol homeostasis. An analysis is made about how emotions and feelings are involved in the disruption of homeostasis, and we will see to what extent the balance between vagal tone and cortisol may reflect dysfunctions of the brain-gut homeostasis. Finally, the interest of therapeutic treatments focused on stress reduction and vagal tone enforcement is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Pellissier
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, Personnalité, Cognition, Changement Social, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, Chambéry, France.
| | - B Bonaz
- Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-Gastroentérologie, CHU de Grenoble, Grenoble 09, France; Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble Institut des Neurosciences, Fonctions Cérébrales et Neuromodulation, INSERM, Grenoble 09, France
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhuang Z, Zhang L, Wang X, Tao L, Lv B. PDIA3 gene induces visceral hypersensitivity in rats with irritable bowel syndrome through the dendritic cell-mediated activation of T cells. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2644. [PMID: 27896022 PMCID: PMC5119228 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the mechanism of protein disulfide-isomerase A3 (PDIA3)-induced visceral hypersensitivity in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Rats were treated with saline (control), acetic acid and restraint stress (IBS model), empty vector (RNAi control) and PDIA3-RNAi vector (PDIA3-RNAi). Mesenteric lymph node DCs (MLNDCs) and splenic CD4+/CD8+ T cells were isolated for co-cultivation. Compared with control, MLNDCs co-cultured with CD4+ or CD8+ T cells showed an increased ability to promote T cell proliferation and produced more IL-4 or IL-9 secretion. Compared with the RNAi control, MLNDCs from the PDIA3 knockdown models were less effective in promoting the proliferation of CD4+/CD8+ T cells. It is concluded that PDIA3 plays an important role in the development of IBS through the DC-mediated activation of T cells, resulting in degranulation of MCs and visceral hypersensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhaomeng Zhuang
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hanzhou, China; Wenzhou Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Hospital, Wenzhou Shi, Zhejiang Sheng, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University , Hanzhou , China
| | - Xiaoteng Wang
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University , Hanzhou , China
| | - Liyuan Tao
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University , Hanzhou , China
| | - Bin Lv
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University , Hanzhou , China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yang B, Zhou XC, Lan C. Impact of the alterations in the interstitial cells of Cajal on intestinal motility in post-infection irritable bowel syndrome. Mol Med Rep 2014; 11:2735-40. [PMID: 25484117 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.3039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are basic components of gastrointestinal motility. However, changes in ICC and their role in post‑infection irritable bowel syndrome (PI‑IBS) remain to be elucidated. To observe the impact of alterations in the ICC on intestinal motility in a PI‑IBS mouse model, female C57BL\6 mice were infected by the oral administration of 400 Trichinella spiralis larvae. The abdominal withdrawal reflex, intestine transportation time (ITT), grain numbers, Bristol scores, wet/dry weights and the percentage water content of the mice feces every 2 h were used to assess changes in the intestinal motor function. The intestines were excised and sectioned for pathological and histochemical examination. These intestines were also used to quantify the protein and mRNA expression of c‑kit. The C57BL\6 mouse can act as a PI‑IBS model at day 56 post‑infection. Compared with the control mice, the ITT was shorter, the grain numbers, Bristol scores, wet weights and water contents of the mice feces were higher and the dry weights were unchanged in the PI‑IBS mice. The protein and mRNA expression levels of c‑kit were upregulated in the entire PI‑IBS mouse intestines. Following immunohistochemical staining, the increased number of c‑kit‑positive cells were detected predominantly in the submucosa and myenteron. These results suggested that the alterations of the ICC resulted in the changes of the intestinal motility patterns in the PI‑IBS mouse models induced by Trichinella spiralis infection, which may be the main mechanism underlying intestinal motility disorders in PI‑IBS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Xu-Chun Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Cheng Lan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hainan Provincial People's Hospital, Haikou, Hainan 400016, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Olesen AE, Andresen T, Staahl C, Drewes AM. Human experimental pain models for assessing the therapeutic efficacy of analgesic drugs. Pharmacol Rev 2012; 64:722-79. [PMID: 22722894 DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.005447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain models in animals have shown low predictivity for analgesic efficacy in humans, and clinical studies are often very confounded, blurring the evaluation. Human experimental pain models may therefore help to evaluate mechanisms and effect of analgesics and bridge findings from basic studies to the clinic. The present review outlines the concept and limitations of human experimental pain models and addresses analgesic efficacy in healthy volunteers and patients. Experimental models to evoke pain and hyperalgesia are available for most tissues. In healthy volunteers, the effect of acetaminophen is difficult to detect unless neurophysiological methods are used, whereas the effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs could be detected in most models. Anticonvulsants and antidepressants are sensitive in several models, particularly in models inducing hyperalgesia. For opioids, tonic pain with high intensity is attenuated more than short-lasting pain and nonpainful sensations. Fewer studies were performed in patients. In general, the sensitivity to analgesics is better in patients than in healthy volunteers, but the lower number of studies may bias the results. Experimental models have variable reliability, and validity shall be interpreted with caution. Models including deep, tonic pain and hyperalgesia are better to predict the effects of analgesics. Assessment with neurophysiologic methods and imaging is valuable as a supplement to psychophysical methods and can increase sensitivity. The models need to be designed with careful consideration of pharmacological mechanisms and pharmacokinetics of analgesics. Knowledge obtained from this review can help design experimental pain studies for new compounds entering phase I and II clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Estrup Olesen
- Mech-Sense, Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Aalborg Hospital, Mølleparkvej 4, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
A prospective randomized trial of mosapride vs. placebo in constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107:792-3. [PMID: 22552247 DOI: 10.1038/ajg.2012.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
9
|
Yang JM, Xian YF, Ip PSP, Wu JCY, Lao L, Fong HHS, Sung JJY, Berman B, Yeung JHK, Che CT. Schisandra chinensis reverses visceral hypersensitivity in a neonatal-maternal separated rat model. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2012; 19:402-8. [PMID: 22230486 PMCID: PMC3295867 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2011.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 09/21/2011] [Accepted: 11/24/2011] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Visceral hypersensitivity is an important characteristic feature of functional gastrointestinal disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). This study evaluated the effect of Schisandra chinensis on visceral hyperalgesia induced by neonatal maternal separation (NMS) in an IBS rat model. The visceromotor responses to colorectal balloon distension (CRD) were measured by abdominal withdrawal reflex (AWR) and electromyographic (EMG) activities. NMS control rats (receiving vehicle) underwent aggravated visceral pain in response to CRD as compared to normal rats, evidenced by the reduced pain threshold, enhanced AWR scores and EMG responses. Treatment with a 70% ethanol extract of S. chinensis (0.3g/kg and 1.5g/kg/day) for 7 days resulted in an increase in the pain threshold (NMS control: 19.1±1.0mmHg vs low-dose: 24.8±1.3mmHg and high-dose: 25.2±1.8mmHg, p<0.01), and abolished the elevated AWR and EMG responses to CRD in NMS rats (AUC values of EMG response curve were: 1952±202 in NMS control group vs 1074±90 in low-dose group and 1145±92 in high-dose group, p<0.001), indicating that S. chinensis could reverse the visceral hypersensitivity induced by early-life stress event. The result of ELSA measurement shows that the elevated serotonin (5-HT) level in the distal colon of NMS rats returned to normal level after treatment with S. chinensis. Moreover, the increase in pain threshold in rats treated with S. chinensis was associated with a decline of the mRNA level of 5-HT(3) receptor in the distal colon. All available results demonstrate that S. chinensis can reverse visceral hypersensitivity induced by neonatal-maternal separation, and the effect may be mediated through colonic 5-HT pathway in the rat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Ming Yang
- School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Salari P, Abdollahi M. Systematic review of modulators of benzodiazepine receptors in irritable bowel syndrome: Is there hope? World J Gastroenterol 2011; 17:4251-7. [PMID: 22090780 PMCID: PMC3214699 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v17.i38.4251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Revised: 05/20/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Several drugs are used in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) but all have side effects and variable efficacy. Considering the role of the gut-brain axis, immune, neural, and endocrine pathways in the pathogenesis of IBS and possible beneficial effects of benzodiazepines (BZD) in this axis, the present systematic review focuses on the efficacy of BZD receptor modulators in human IBS. For the years 1966 to February 2011, all literature was searched for any articles on the use of BZD receptor modulators and IBS. After thorough evaluation and omission of duplicate data, 10 out of 69 articles were included. BZD receptor modulators can be helpful, especially in the diarrhea-dominant form of IBS, by affecting the inflammatory, neural, and psychologic pathways, however, controversies still exist. Recently, a new BZD receptor modulator, dextofisopam was synthesized and studied in human subjects, but the studies are limited to phase IIb clinical trials. None of the existing trials considered the neuroimmunomodulatory effect of BZDs in IBS, but bearing in mind the concentration-dependent effect of BZDs on cytokines and cell proliferation, future studies using pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic approaches are highly recommended.
Collapse
|