1
|
Massa C, Seliger B. The tumor microenvironment: Thousand obstacles for effector T cells. Cell Immunol 2017; 343:103730. [PMID: 29249298 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The immune system is endowed with the capability to recognize and destroy transformed cells, but even in the presence of an immune infiltrate many tumors do progress. In the last decades new discoveries have shed light into (some of) the underlying mechanisms. Immune effector cells are not only under the influence of immune suppressive cell subsets, but also intrinsically regulated by immune check point molecules that under physiological condition avoid attach of healthy tissue. Moreover, tumor cells are modifying the surrounding microenvironment through secretion of immune modulators as well as via their own metabolism, thus further impairing the development of immune effector functions. Different approaches are currently being evaluated in the clinic to overcome those regulatory mechanisms and to unleash effector T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Massa
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Barbara Seliger
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Guo J, Cheng J, North BJ, Wei W. Functional analyses of major cancer-related signaling pathways in Alzheimer's disease etiology. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2017; 1868:341-358. [PMID: 28694093 PMCID: PMC5675793 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an aging-related neurodegenerative disease and accounts for majority of human dementia. The hyper-phosphorylated tau-mediated intracellular neurofibrillary tangle and amyloid β-mediated extracellular senile plaque are characterized as major pathological lesions of AD. Different from the dysregulated growth control and ample genetic mutations associated with human cancers, AD displays damage and death of brain neurons in the absence of genomic alterations. Although various biological processes predominately governing tumorigenesis such as inflammation, metabolic alteration, oxidative stress and insulin resistance have been associated with AD genesis, the mechanistic connection of these biological processes and signaling pathways including mTOR, MAPK, SIRT, HIF, and the FOXO pathway controlling aging and the pathological lesions of AD are not well recapitulated. Hence, we performed a thorough review by summarizing the physiological roles of these key cancer-related signaling pathways in AD pathogenesis, comprising of the crosstalk of these pathways with neurofibrillary tangle and senile plaque formation to impact AD phenotypes. Importantly, the pharmaceutical investigations of anti-aging and AD relevant medications have also been highlighted. In summary, in this review, we discuss the potential role that cancer-related signaling pathways may play in governing the pathogenesis of AD, as well as their potential as future targeted strategies to delay or prevent aging-related diseases and combating AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Guo
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ji Cheng
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Brian J North
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Wenyi Wei
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Upregulation of PD-L1 by EGFR Activation Mediates the Immune Escape in EGFR-Driven NSCLC: Implication for Optional Immune Targeted Therapy for NSCLC Patients with EGFR Mutation. J Thorac Oncol 2016; 10:910-23. [PMID: 25658629 DOI: 10.1097/jto.0000000000000500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 501] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation status was reported to be associated with programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression. However, the molecular mechanism of PD-L1 regulation by EGFR activation and the potential clinical significance of blocking PD-1/PD-L1 in EGFR-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) were largely unknown. METHODS Western blot, real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence, and flow cytometry were employed to explore the association between PD-L1 and EGFR activation. Then, we used EGFR-TKIs and downstream pathways inhibitors to clarify the detailed signaling pathway involved in PD-L1 regulation. Cell apoptosis, viability, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test were used to study the immune suppression by EGFR activation and immune reactivation by EGFR-TKIs and/or PD-1 blocking in tumor cells and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells coculture system. RESULTS We found that EGFR activation by EGF stimulation, exon-19 deletions, and L858R mutation could induce PD-L1 expression. EGFR activation upregulated PD-L1 through p-ERK1/2/p-c-Jun but not through p-AKT/p-S6 pathway. PD-L1 mediated by EGFR activation could induce the apoptosis of T cells through PD-L1/PD-1 axis in tumor cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells coculture system. Inhibiting EGFR by EGFR-TKIs could free the inhibition of T cells and enhance the production of interferon-γ. Synergistic tumor cell killing effects were not observed with EGFR-TKIs and anti-PD-1 antibody combination treatment in coculture system. CONCLUSIONS Our results imply that EGFR-TKIs could not only directly inhibit tumor cell viability but also indirectly enhance antitumor immunity through the downregulation of PD-L1. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies could be an optional therapy for EGFR-TKI sensitive patients, especially for EGFR-TKIs resistant NSCLC patients with EGFR mutation. Combination of EGFR-TKIs and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies treatment in NSCLC is not supported by the current study but warrant more studies to move into clinical practice.
Collapse
|
5
|
Hong S, Chen N, Fang W, Zhan J, Liu Q, Kang S, He X, Liu L, Zhou T, Huang J, Chen Y, Qin T, Zhang Y, Ma Y, Yang Y, Zhao Y, Huang Y, Zhang L. Upregulation of PD-L1 by EML4-ALK fusion protein mediates the immune escape in ALK positive NSCLC: Implication for optional anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immune therapy for ALK-TKIs sensitive and resistant NSCLC patients. Oncoimmunology 2015; 5:e1094598. [PMID: 27141355 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2015.1094598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Driver mutations were reported to upregulate programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression. However, how PD-L1 expression and immune function was affected by ALK-TKIs and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment in ALK positive non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains poorly understood. In the present study, western-blot, real-time PCR, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence were employed to explore how PD-L1 was regulated by ALK fusion protein. ALK-TKIs and relevant inhibitors were used to identify the downstream signaling pathways involved in PD-L1 regulation. Cell apoptosis, viability and Elisa test were used to study the immune suppression by ALK activation and immune reactivation by ALK-TKIs and/or PD-1 blocking in tumor cells and DC-CIK cells co-culture system. We found that PD-L1 expression was associated with EGFR mutations and ALK fusion genes in NSCLC cell lines. Over-expression of ALK fusion protein increased PD-L1 expression. PD-L1 mediated by ALK fusion protein increased the apoptosis of T cells in tumor cells and DC-CIK cells co-culture system. Inhibiting ALK by sensitive TKIs could enhance the production of IFNγ. Anti-PD-1 antibody was effective in both crizotinib sensitive and resistant NSCLC cells. Synergistic tumor killing effects were not observed with ALK-TKIs and anti-PD-1 antibody combination in co-culture system. ALK-TKIs not only directly inhibited tumor viability but also indirectly enhanced the antitumor immunity via the downregulation of PD-L1. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies could be an optional therapy for crizotinib sensitive, especially crizotinib resistant NSCLC patients with ALK fusion gene. Combination of ALK-TKIs and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies treatment for ALK positive NSCLC warrants more data before moving into clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaodong Hong
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Nan Chen
- Department of Medical Oncology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenfeng Fang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jianhua Zhan
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qing Liu
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shiyang Kang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaobo He
- Department of Medical Oncology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Lin Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Ting Zhou
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiaxing Huang
- Department of Medical Oncology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Medical Oncology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Tao Qin
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yaxiong Zhang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuxiang Ma
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yunpeng Yang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhao
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yan Huang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Li Zhang
- State Key laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China; Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Luke JJ, Ott PA, Shapiro GI. The biology and clinical development of MEK inhibitors for cancer. Drugs 2015; 74:2111-28. [PMID: 25414119 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-014-0315-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKK) MEK1 and MEK2 are integral members of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway and are of interest in the development of anti-cancer therapeutics. The MAPK/ERK pathway is dysregulated in more than 30 % of cancers, predominately by mutations in RAS and BRAF proteins, and MEK serves as a potential downstream target for both of these. The biology of MEK inhibition is complex, as the molecule is differentially regulated by upstream RAS or RAF. This has impacted on the past development of MEK inhibitors as treatments for cancer and may be exploited in more rational, molecularly selected drug development plans in the future. The role of MEK in cancer and the mechanism of action of MEK inhibitors is reviewed. Furthermore, MEK inhibitors that are available in standard practice, as well as those most advanced in clinical development, are discussed. Finally, next steps in the development of MEK inhibitors are considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Luke
- Melanoma and Developmental Therapeutics Clinics, University of Chicago Cancer Center, University of Chicago, 5841 S. Maryland Ave., MC2115, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cancer Dormancy: A Regulatory Role for Endogenous Immunity in Establishing and Maintaining the Tumor Dormant State. Vaccines (Basel) 2015; 3:597-619. [PMID: 26350597 PMCID: PMC4586469 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines3030597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The significant contribution of host immunity in early tumorigenesis has been recently recognized as a result of our better understanding of the molecular pathways regulating tumor cell biology and tumor-lymphocyte interactions. Emerging evidence suggests that disseminated dormant tumor cells derived from primary tumors before or after immune surveillance, are responsible for subsequent metastases. Recent trends from the field of onco-immunology suggest that efficiently stimulating endogenous anticancer immunity is a prerequisite for the successful outcome of conventional cancer therapies. Harnessing the immune system to achieve clinical efficacy is realistic in the context of conventional therapies resulting in immunogenic cell death and/or immunostimulatory side effects. Targeted therapies designed to target oncogenic pathways in tumor cells can also positively regulate the endogenous immune response and tumor microenvironment. Identification of T cell inhibitory signals has prompted the development of immune checkpoint inhibitors, which specifically hinder immune effector inhibition, reinvigorating and potentially expanding the preexisting anticancer immune response. This anticancer immunity can be amplified in the setting of immunotherapies, mostly in the form of vaccines, which boost naturally occurring T cell clones specifically recognizing tumor antigens. Thus, a promising anticancer therapy will aim to activate patients' naturally occurring anticancer immunity either to eliminate residual tumor cells or to prolong dormancy in disseminated tumor cells. Such an endogenous anticancer immunity plays a significant role for controlling the balance between dormant tumor cells and tumor escape, and restraining metastases. In this review, we mean to suggest that anticancer therapies aiming to stimulate the endogenous antitumor responses provide the concept of the therapeutic management of cancer.
Collapse
|
9
|
Baxevanis CN, Anastasopoulou EA, Voutsas IF, Papamichail M, Perez SA. Immune biomarkers: how well do they serve prognosis in human cancers? Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 15:49-59. [PMID: 25345403 DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2015.965684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In order to be optimally efficacious, therapeutic cancer vaccines must induce robust tumor-specific CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells, which are responsible for tumor cell lysis. Unlike cytotoxic drugs, which act directly on the tumor, cancer vaccines demonstrate new kinetics involving the generation of specific cellular immune responses, which need to be translated into antitumor responses to delay tumor progression and improve survival. These delayed kinetics of action establish a new concept of benefit in the long term, which implies a slow down in tumor growth rates, than a marked reduction in tumor size. Therefore, there is a significant need to identify intermediate biomarkers so that clinical responses can be evaluated in a timely manner. Therapeutic vaccination as a modality for cancer treatment has received significant attention with multiple clinical trials demonstrating improvements in overall survival. Significant challenges to this modality remain, including increasing vaccine potency and minimizing treatment-related toxicities and identifying prognostic and predictive biomarkers of clinical benefit that may guide to select and optimize the therapeutic strategies for patients most likely to gain benefit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Constantin N Baxevanis
- Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy Center, Saint Savas Cancer Hospital, 171 Alexandras avenue, Athens 11522, Greece
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Luke JJ, Triozzi PL, McKenna KC, Van Meir EG, Gershenwald JE, Bastian BC, Gutkind JS, Bowcock AM, Streicher HZ, Patel PM, Sato T, Sossman JA, Sznol M, Welch J, Thurin M, Selig S, Flaherty KT, Carvajal RD. Biology of advanced uveal melanoma and next steps for clinical therapeutics. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2014; 28:135-47. [PMID: 25113308 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Uveal melanoma is the most common intraocular malignancy although it is a rare subset of all melanomas. Uveal melanoma has distinct biology relative to cutaneous melanoma, with widely divergent patient outcomes. Patients diagnosed with a primary uveal melanoma can be stratified for risk of metastasis by cytogenetics or gene expression profiling, with approximately half of patients developing metastatic disease, predominately hepatic in location, over a 15-yr period. Historically, no systemic therapy has been associated with a clear clinical benefit for patients with advanced disease, and median survival remains poor. Here, as a joint effort between the Melanoma Research Foundation's ocular melanoma initiative, CURE OM and the National Cancer Institute, the current understanding of the molecular and immunobiology of uveal melanoma is reviewed, and on-going laboratory research into the disease is highlighted. Finally, recent investigations relevant to clinical management via targeted and immunotherapies are reviewed, and next steps in the development of clinical therapeutics are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Luke
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Luke JJ, Ott PA. New developments in the treatment of metastatic melanoma - role of dabrafenib-trametinib combination therapy. DRUG HEALTHCARE AND PATIENT SAFETY 2014; 6:77-88. [PMID: 25018652 PMCID: PMC4075957 DOI: 10.2147/dhps.s39568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Development of selective inhibitors of BRAF has improved the survival of patients with BRAF-mutant melanoma. The progression-free survival after treatment with a BRAF inhibitor is modest, however, and BRAF inhibitors induce cutaneous toxicity, likely due to paradoxical activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Combining selective BRAF and MEK inhibition, such as the BRAF inhibitor dabrafenib and the MEK inhibitor trametinib, has been shown to improve the response rate and progression-free survival in patients with advanced melanoma while significantly alleviating the paradoxical activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase. This combination treatment results in a reduction in skin toxicity relative to that seen with a BRAF inhibitor alone; however, addition of the MEK inhibitor adds other toxicities, such as pyrexia and gastrointestinal or ocular toxicity. While combined BRAF–MEK inhibition appears primed to become a standard molecular approach for BRAF-mutant melanoma, the utility of the combination has to be considered in the rapidly changing landscape of immunotherapeutics, such as immune checkpoint blockade using anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 and anti-programmed death-1/programmed death-L1 antibodies. Here we review the development of the dabrafenib plus trametinib combination, the characteristics of each drug and the combination, and the role of this combination in the management of patients with BRAF-mutant melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason J Luke
- Melanoma Disease Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Patrick A Ott
- Melanoma Disease Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|