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Baietti MF, Sewduth RN. Novel Therapeutic Approaches Targeting Post-Translational Modifications in Lung Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15010206. [PMID: 36678835 PMCID: PMC9865455 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide. It consists of two different subtypes: non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC). Despite novel therapeutic options such as immunotherapy, only 20% of lung cancer patients survive the disease after five years. This low survival rate is due to acquired drug resistance and severe off-target effects caused by currently used therapies. Identification and development of novel and targeted therapeutic approaches are urgently required to improve the standard of care for lung cancer patients. Here, we describe the recent development of novel drug-delivery approaches, such as adenovirus, lipid nanoparticles, and PROTACs, that have been tested in clinical trials and experimentally in the context of fundamental research. These different options show that it is now possible to target protein kinases, phosphatases, ubiquitin ligases, or protein modifications directly in lung cancer to block disease progression. Furthermore, the recent acceptance of RNA vaccines using lipid nanoparticles has further revealed therapeutic options that could be combined with chemo-/immunotherapies to improve current lung cancer therapies. This review aims to compare recent advances in the pharmaceutical research field for the development of technologies targeting post-translational modifications or protein modifiers involved in the tumorigenesis of lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Francesca Baietti
- TRACE, Laboratory for RNA Cancer Biology, Department of Oncology, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Correspondence: (M.F.B.); (R.N.S.)
| | - Raj Nayan Sewduth
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Cancer Biology, Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Correspondence: (M.F.B.); (R.N.S.)
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Ebisu H, Shintani K, Chinen T, Nagumo Y, Shioda S, Hatanaka T, Sakakura A, Hayakawa I, Kigoshi H, Usui T. Dual Inhibition of γ-Tubulin and Plk1 Induces Mitotic Cell Death. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:620185. [PMID: 33584305 PMCID: PMC7878676 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.620185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
α/β-Tubulin inhibitors that alter microtubule (MT) dynamics are commonly used in cancer therapy, however, these inhibitors also cause severe side effects such as peripheral neuropathy. γ-Tubulin is a possible target as antitumor drugs with low side effects, but the antitumor effect of γ-tubulin inhibitors has not been reported yet. In this study, we verified the antitumor activity of gatastatin, a γ-tubulin specific inhibitor. The cytotoxicity of gatastatin was relatively weak compared with that of the conventional MT inhibitors, paclitaxel and vinblastine. To improve the cytotoxicity, we screened the chemicals that improve the effects of gatastatin and found that BI 2536, a Plk1 inhibitor, greatly increases the cytotoxicity of gatastatin. Co-treatment with gatastatin and BI 2536 arrested cell cycle progression at mitosis with abnormal spindles. Moreover, mitotic cell death induced by the combined treatment was suppressed by the Mps1 inhibitor, reversine. These findings suggest that co-treatment with Plk1 and γ-tubulin inhibitors causes spindle assembly checkpoint-dependent mitotic cell death by impairing centrosome functions. These results raise the possibility of Plk1 and γ-tubulin inhibitor co-treatment as a novel cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruna Ebisu
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Kana Shintani
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Takumi Chinen
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Department of Molecular Genetics, Division of Centrosome Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Japan.,Department of Physiological Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoko Nagumo
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Shuya Shioda
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Taisei Hatanaka
- Division of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Akira Sakakura
- Division of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ichiro Hayakawa
- Graduate School of Integrated Basic Sciences, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideo Kigoshi
- Graduate School of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Takeo Usui
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Microbiology Research Center for Sustainability (MiCS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
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Huang P, Le X, Huang F, Yang J, Yang H, Ma J, Hu G, Li Q, Chen Z. Discovery of a Dual Tubulin Polymerization and Cell Division Cycle 20 Homologue Inhibitor via Structural Modification on Apcin. J Med Chem 2020; 63:4685-4700. [PMID: 32290657 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b02097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Apcin is one of the few compounds that have been previously reported as a Cdc20 specific inhibitor, although Cdc20 is a very promising drug target. We reported here the design, synthesis, and biological evaluations of 2,2,2-trichloro-1-aryl carbamate derivatives as Cdc20 inhibitors. Among these derivatives, compound 9f was much more efficient than the positive compound apcin in inhibiting cancer cell growth, but it had approximately the same binding affinity with apcin in SPR assays. It is possible that another mechanism of action might exist. Further evidence demonstrated that compound 9f also inhibited tubulin polymerization, disorganized the microtubule network, and blocked the cell cycle at the M phase with changes in the expression of cyclins. Thus, it induced apoptosis through the activation of caspase-3 and PARP. In addition, compound 9f inhibited cell migration and invasion in a concentration-dependent manner. These results provide guidance for developing the current series as potential new anticancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Huang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Xiangyang Le
- Department of Pharmacy, Yiyang Central Hospital, Yiyang 413000, Hunan, China
| | - Fei Huang
- Center for Medical Experiments, Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Haofeng Yang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Junlong Ma
- Department of Good Clinical Practice, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan 442000, Hubei, China
| | - Gaoyun Hu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Qianbin Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
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Shan L, Zhao M, Lu Y, Ning H, Yang S, Song Y, Chai W, Shi X. CENPE promotes lung adenocarcinoma proliferation and is directly regulated by FOXM1. Int J Oncol 2019; 55:257-266. [PMID: 31115500 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is the most common and most lethal type of cancer. A sustained proliferative capacity is one of the hallmarks of cancer, and microtubules serve an important role in maintaining a sustained cell cycle. Therefore, understanding the regulation of microtubule proteins in the cell cycle is important for tumor prevention and treatment. Centromere protein E (CENPE) is a human kinetochore protein that is highly expressed in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. The present study identified that CENPE is highly expressed in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) tissues. Following knockdown of CENPE expression, the proliferation of lung cancer cells was inhibited. In addition, it was revealed that forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) is significantly correlated with CENE expression. Following FOXM1‑knockdown, the expression level of CENPE was decreased and the proliferation of lung cancer cells was inhibited. Overexpression of FOXM1 promoted the expression of CENPE and the proliferation of lung cancer cells. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay identified that FOXM1 binds directly to the promoter region of CENPE. Therefore, the present data demonstrated that CENPE can promote the proliferation of LUAD cells and is directly regulated by FOXM1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Shan
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Minjie Zhao
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Ya Lu
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Hongjuan Ning
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Shuman Yang
- School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Yonggui Song
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Wenshu Chai
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Xianbao Shi
- Department of Respiratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
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Shelton J, Lu X, Hollenbaugh JA, Cho JH, Amblard F, Schinazi RF. Metabolism, Biochemical Actions, and Chemical Synthesis of Anticancer Nucleosides, Nucleotides, and Base Analogs. Chem Rev 2016; 116:14379-14455. [PMID: 27960273 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nucleoside, nucleotide, and base analogs have been in the clinic for decades to treat both viral pathogens and neoplasms. More than 20% of patients on anticancer chemotherapy have been treated with one or more of these analogs. This review focuses on the chemical synthesis and biology of anticancer nucleoside, nucleotide, and base analogs that are FDA-approved and in clinical development since 2000. We highlight the cellular biology and clinical biology of analogs, drug resistance mechanisms, and compound specificity towards different cancer types. Furthermore, we explore analog syntheses as well as improved and scale-up syntheses. We conclude with a discussion on what might lie ahead for medicinal chemists, biologists, and physicians as they try to improve analog efficacy through prodrug strategies and drug combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jadd Shelton
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Xiao Lu
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Joseph A Hollenbaugh
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Jong Hyun Cho
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Franck Amblard
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Raymond F Schinazi
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine , 1760 Haygood Drive, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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Ferrara R, Pilotto S, Peretti U, Caccese M, Kinspergher S, Carbognin L, Karachaliou N, Rosell R, Tortora G, Bria E. Tubulin inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer: looking back and forward. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2016; 17:1113-29. [DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2016.1157581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. Ferrara
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - S. Pilotto
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - U. Peretti
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - M. Caccese
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - S. Kinspergher
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - L. Carbognin
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | | | - R. Rosell
- Pangaea Biotech, Barcelona, Spain
- Instituto Oncológico Dr Rosell, Quiron-Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institute of Oncology, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain
- Molecular Oncology Research (MORe) Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
- Germans Trias i Pujol Health Sciences Institute and Hospital, Campus Can Ruti., Badalona, Spain
| | - G. Tortora
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
| | - E. Bria
- Medical Oncology, University of Verona, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata, Verona, Italy
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Lucero-Acuña A, Jeffery JJ, Abril ER, Nagle RB, Guzman R, Pagel MD, Meuillet EJ. Nanoparticle delivery of an AKT/PDK1 inhibitor improves the therapeutic effect in pancreatic cancer. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:5653-65. [PMID: 25516710 PMCID: PMC4263440 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s68511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The K-ras mutation in pancreatic cancer can inhibit drug delivery and increase drug resistance. This is exemplified by the therapeutic effect of PH-427, a small molecule inhibitor of AKT/PDK1, which has shown a good therapeutic effect against a BxPC3 pancreatic cancer model that has K-ras, but has a poor therapeutic effect against a MiaPaCa-2 pancreatic cancer model with mutant K-ras. To increase the therapeutic effect of PH-427 against the MiaPaCa-2 pancreatic cancer model with mutant K-ras, we encapsulated PH-427 into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PNP) to form drug-loaded PH-427-PNP. PH-427 showed a biphasic release from PH-427-PNP over 30 days during studies in sodium phosphate buffer, and in vitro studies revealed that the PNP was rapidly internalized into MiaPaCa-2 tumor cells, suggesting that PNP can improve PH-427 delivery into cells harboring mutant K-ras. In vivo studies of an orthotopic MiaPaCa-2 pancreatic cancer model showed reduced tumor load with PH-427-PNP as compared with treatment using PH-427 alone or with no treatment. Ex vivo studies confirmed the in vivo results, suggesting that PNP can improve drug delivery to pancreatic cancer harboring mutant K-ras.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armando Lucero-Acuña
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Justin J Jeffery
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Edward R Abril
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Raymond B Nagle
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Pathology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Roberto Guzman
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mark D Pagel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Medical Imaging, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Emmanuelle J Meuillet
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA ; Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Shcherba M, Liang Y, Fernandes D, Perez-Soler R, Cheng H. Cell cycle inhibitors for the treatment of NSCLC. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 15:991-1004. [PMID: 24666387 DOI: 10.1517/14656566.2014.902935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lung cancer remains to be the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Treatment of lung cancer still poses a significant challenge. Cell cycle is a tightly integrated process and is frequently aberrant in lung cancer. Cell cycle inhibitors have emerged as novel therapeutics, in anticipation of overcoming the unrestricted cell division and growth in lung cancer. AREAS COVERED In this article, we first address the potential roles of cell cycle proteins and cell cycle deregulation in the development of lung cancer. The review then provides an overview for several major categories of cell cycle inhibitors with particular attention to their tolerability and disease control in early phases of lung cancer trials. EXPERT OPINION Targeted agents against different components of cell cycle regulation, such as cyclin-dependent kinase, polo-like kinase, checkpoint kinase and aurora kinase, are currently in clinical development for lung cancer management. Their clinical benefits remain to be defined. When evaluated as single agents in lung cancer, cell cycle inhibitors are often associated with limited clinical activity and tolerable toxicities. The key challenges in the drug development are to understand resistance mechanisms and to identify predictive biomarkers that can potentially guide patient selection and optimize the utility of these targeted inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Shcherba
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Montefiore Medical Center, Oncology , 111 East 210th Street, Bronx, NY 10467 , USA
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Co-delivery of Sildenafil (Viagra(®)) and Crizotinib for synergistic and improved anti-tumoral therapy. Pharm Res 2014; 31:2516-28. [PMID: 24623484 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1347-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cancer multi-drug resistance is a major issue associated with current anti-tumoral therapeutics. In this work, Crizotinib an anti-tumoral drug approved for the treatment of non-small lung cancer in humans, and Sildenafil (Viagra(®)), were loaded into micellar carriers to evaluate the establishment of a possible synergistic anti-tumoral effect in breast cancer cells. METHODS Micellar carriers comprised by PEG-PLA block co-polymers were formulated by the solvent displacement method in which the simultaneous encapsulation of Crizotinib and Sildenafil was promoted. Encapsulation efficiency was analyzed by a new UPLC method validated for this combination of compounds. Micelle physicochemical characterization and cellular uptake were characterized by light scattering and confocal microscopy. The bio- and hemocompatibility of the carriers was also evaluated. MCF-7 breast cancer cells were used to investigate the synergistic anti-tumoral effect. RESULTS Our results demonstrate that this particular combination induces massive apoptosis of breast cancer cells. The co-delivery of Crizotinib and Sildenafil was only possible due to the high encapsulation efficiency of the micellar systems (>70%). The micelles with size ranging between 93 and 127 nm were internalized by breast cancer cells and subsequently released their payload in the intracellular compartment. The results obtained demonstrated that the delivery of both drugs by micellar carriers led to a 2.7 fold increase in the anti-tumoral effect, when using only half of the concentration that is required when free drugs are administered. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, co-delivery promoted a synergistic effect and demonstrated for the first time the potential of PEG-PLA-Crizotinib-Sildenafil combination for application in cancer therapy.
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Xue X, Hall MD, Zhang Q, Wang PC, Gottesman MM, Liang XJ. Nanoscale drug delivery platforms overcome platinum-based resistance in cancer cells due to abnormal membrane protein trafficking. ACS NANO 2013; 7:10452-64. [PMID: 24219825 PMCID: PMC3907077 DOI: 10.1021/nn405004f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The development of cellular resistance to platinum-based chemotherapies is often associated with reduced intracellular platinum concentrations. In some models, this reduction is due to abnormal membrane protein trafficking, resulting in reduced uptake by transporters at the cell surface. Given the central role of platinum drugs in the clinic, it is critical to overcome cisplatin resistance by bypassing the plasma membrane barrier to significantly increase the intracellular cisplatin concentration enough to inhibit the proliferation of cisplatin-resistant cells. Therefore, rational design of appropriate nanoscale drug delivery platforms (nDDPs) loaded with cisplatin or other platinum analogues as payloads is a possible strategy to solve this problem. This review will focus on the known mechanism of membrane trafficking in cisplatin-resistant cells and the development and employment of nDDPs to improve cell uptake of cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Xue
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Peking University, Beijing 100191, P. R. China
| | - Paul C. Wang
- Molecular Imaging Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Howard University, Washington D.C. 20060, USA
| | - Michael M. Gottesman
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Xing-Jie Liang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology of China, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
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