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Luo AP, Giannangelo C, Siddiqui G, Creek DJ. Promising antimalarial hits from phenotypic screens: a review of recently-described multi-stage actives and their modes of action. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1308193. [PMID: 38162576 PMCID: PMC10757594 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1308193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the last two decades, global malaria cases caused by Plasmodium falciparum have declined due to the implementation of effective treatments and the use of insecticides. However, the COVID-19 pandemic caused major disruption in the timely delivery of medical goods and diverted public health resources, impairing malaria control. The emergence of resistance to all existing frontline antimalarials underpins an urgent need for new antimalarials with novel mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the need to reduce malaria transmission and/or prevent malaria infection has shifted the focus of antimalarial research towards the discovery of compounds that act beyond the symptomatic blood stage and also impact other parasite life cycle stages. Phenotypic screening has been responsible for the majority of new antimalarial lead compounds discovered over the past 10 years. This review describes recently reported novel antimalarial hits that target multiple parasite stages and were discovered by phenotypic screening during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their modes of action and targets in blood stage parasites are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ghizal Siddiqui
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Selection of an Aptamer against the Enzyme 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate Reductoisomerase from Plasmodium falciparum. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14112515. [PMID: 36432706 PMCID: PMC9695703 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The methyl erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis is essential for malaria parasites and also for several human pathogenic bacteria, thus representing an interesting target for future antimalarials and antibiotics and for diagnostic strategies. We have developed a DNA aptamer (D10) against Plasmodium falciparum 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), the second enzyme of this metabolic route. D10 binds in vitro to recombinant DXR from P. falciparum and Escherichia coli, showing at 10 µM a ca. 50% inhibition of the bacterial enzyme. In silico docking analysis indicates that D10 associates with DXR in solvent-exposed regions outside the active center pocket. According to fluorescence confocal microscopy data, this aptamer specifically targets in P. falciparum in vitro cultures the apicoplast organelle where the MEP pathway is localized and is, therefore, a highly specific marker of red blood cells parasitized by Plasmodium vs. naïve erythrocytes. D10 is also selective for the detection of MEP+ bacteria (e.g., E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) vs. those lacking DXR (e.g., Enterococcus faecalis). Based on these results, we discuss the potential of DNA aptamers in the development of ligands that can outcompete the performance of the well-established antibody technology for future therapeutic and diagnostic approaches.
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Abstract
Malaria parasites have three genomes: a nuclear genome, a mitochondrial genome, and an apicoplast genome. Since the apicoplast is a plastid organelle of prokaryotic origin and has no counterpart in the human host, it can be a source of novel targets for antimalarials. Plasmodium falciparum DNA gyrase (PfGyr) A and B subunits both have apicoplast-targeting signals. First, to test the predicted localization of this enzyme in the apicoplast and the breadth of its function at the subcellular level, nuclear-encoded PfGyrA was disrupted using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is known to rescue parasites from apicoplast inhibitors. Indeed, successful growth and characterization of PfΔGyrA was possible in the presence of IPP. PfGyrA disruption was accompanied by loss of plastid acyl-carrier protein (ACP) immunofluorescence and the plastid genome. Second, ciprofloxacin, an antibacterial gyrase inhibitor, has been used for malaria prophylaxis, but there is a need for a more detailed description of the mode of action of ciprofloxacin in malaria parasites. As predicted, PfΔGyrA clone supplemented with IPP was less sensitive to ciprofloxacin but not to the nuclear topoisomerase inhibitor etoposide. At high concentrations, however, ciprofloxacin continued to inhibit IPP-rescued PfΔGyrA, possibly suggesting that ciprofloxacin may have an additional nonapicoplast target in P. falciparum. Overall, we confirm that PfGyrA is an apicoplast enzyme in the malaria parasite, essential for blood-stage parasites, and a possible target of ciprofloxacin but perhaps not the only target.
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Faheem, Kumar BK, Sekhar KVGC, Kunjiappan S, Jamalis J, Balaña-Fouce R, Sankaranarayanan M. Recent Update on the Anti-infective Potential of β-carboline Analogs. Mini Rev Med Chem 2021; 21:398-425. [PMID: 33001013 DOI: 10.2174/1389557520666201001130114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
β-Carboline, a naturally occurring indole alkaloid, holds a momentous spot in the field of medicinal chemistry due to its myriad of pharmacological actions like anticancer, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmanial, antimalarial, neuropharmacological, anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic among others. β-Carbolines exhibit their pharmacological activity via diverse mechanisms. This review provides a recent update (2015-2020) on the anti-infective potential of natural and synthetic β-carboline analogs focusing on its antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antimalarial, antileishmanial and antitrypanosomal properties. In cases where enough details are available, a note on its mechanism of action is also added.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faheem
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Pilani Campus, Vidya Vihar, Pilani-333031, Rajasthan, India
| | - Banoth Karan Kumar
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Pilani Campus, Vidya Vihar, Pilani-333031, Rajasthan, India
| | - Kondapalli Venkata Gowri Chandra Sekhar
- Department of Chemistry, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Jawahar Nagar, Shameerpet Mandal, R.R. Dist. Hyderabad, 500078, Telangana, India
| | - Selvaraj Kunjiappan
- Department of Biotechnology, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil 626126, India
| | - Joazaizulfazli Jamalis
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor 81310, Malaysia
| | | | - Murugesan Sankaranarayanan
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, Pilani Campus, Vidya Vihar, Pilani-333031, Rajasthan, India
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Abstract
Ferredoxin (Fd) and ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (FNR) form a redox system that is hypothesized to play a central role in the maintenance and function of the apicoplast organelle of malaria parasites. The Fd/FNR system provides reducing power to various iron-sulfur cluster (FeS)-dependent proteins in the apicoplast and is believed to help to maintain redox balance in the organelle. While the Fd/FNR system has been pursued as a target for antimalarial drug discovery, Fd, FNR, and the FeS proteins presumably reliant on their reducing power play an unknown role in parasite survival and apicoplast maintenance. To address these questions, we generated genetic deletions of these proteins in a parasite line containing an apicoplast bypass system. Through these deletions, we discovered that Fd, FNR, and certain FeS proteins are essential for parasite survival but found that none are required for apicoplast maintenance. Additionally, we addressed the question of how Fd and its downstream FeS proteins obtain FeS cofactors by deleting the FeS transfer proteins SufA and NfuApi. While individual deletions of these proteins revealed their dispensability, double deletion resulted in synthetic lethality, demonstrating a redundant role in providing FeS clusters to Fd and other essential FeS proteins. Our data support a model in which the reducing power from the Fd/FNR system to certain downstream FeS proteins is essential for the survival of blood-stage malaria parasites but not for organelle maintenance, while other FeS proteins are dispensable for this stage of parasite development. IMPORTANCE Ferredoxin (Fd) and ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (FNR) form one of the few known redox systems in the apicoplast of malaria parasites and provide reducing power to iron-sulfur (FeS) cluster proteins within the organelle. While the Fd/FNR system has been explored as a drug target, the essentiality and roles of this system and the identity of its downstream FeS proteins have not been determined. To answer these questions, we generated deletions of these proteins in an apicoplast metabolic bypass line (PfMev) and determined the minimal set of proteins required for parasite survival. Moving upstream of this pathway, we also generated individual and dual deletions of the two FeS transfer proteins that deliver FeS clusters to Fd and downstream FeS proteins. We found that both transfer proteins are dispensable, but double deletion displayed a synthetic lethal phenotype, demonstrating their functional redundancy. These findings provide important insights into apicoplast biochemistry and drug development.
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Keutcha C, Liu HB, Kwan B, Dziedzic A, Jedlicka AE, Prigge ST. The NTP generating activity of pyruvate kinase II is critical for apicoplast maintenance in Plasmodium falciparum. eLife 2020; 9:e50807. [PMID: 32815516 PMCID: PMC7556864 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum parasites is believed to rely on the import of three-carbon phosphate compounds for use in organelle anabolic pathways, in addition to the generation of energy and reducing power within the organelle. We generated a series of genetic deletions in an apicoplast metabolic bypass line to determine which genes involved in apicoplast carbon metabolism are required for blood-stage parasite survival and organelle maintenance. We found that pyruvate kinase II (PyrKII) is essential for organelle maintenance, but that production of pyruvate by PyrKII is not responsible for this phenomenon. Enzymatic characterization of PyrKII revealed activity against all NDPs and dNDPs tested, suggesting that it may be capable of generating a broad range of nucleotide triphosphates. Conditional mislocalization of PyrKII resulted in decreased transcript levels within the apicoplast that preceded organelle disruption, suggesting that PyrKII is required for organelle maintenance due to its role in nucleotide triphosphate generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Cyrianne Keutcha
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Hans B Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Bobby Kwan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Amanda Dziedzic
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Anne E Jedlicka
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
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The proofreading activity of Pfprex from Plasmodium falciparum can prevent mutagenesis of the apicoplast genome by oxidized nucleotides. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11157. [PMID: 32636411 PMCID: PMC7341739 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67853-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The DNA polymerase module of the Pfprex enzyme (PfpPol) is responsible for duplication of the genome of the apicoplast organelle in the malaria parasite. We show that PfpPol can misincorporate oxidized nucleotides such as 8oxodGTP opposite dA. This event gives rise to transversion mutations that are known to lead to adverse physiological outcomes. The apicoplast genome is particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of 8oxodGTP due to very high AT content (~ 87%). We show that the proofreading activity of PfpPol has the unique ability to remove the oxidized nucleotide from the primer terminus. Due to this property, the proofreading domain of PfpPol is able to prevent mutagenesis of the AT-rich apicoplast genome and neutralize the deleterious genotoxic effects of ROS generated in the apicoplast due to normal metabolic processes. The proofreading activity of the Pfprex enzyme may, therefore, represent an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Also, a survey of DNA repair pathways shows that the observed property of Pfprex constitutes a novel form of dynamic error correction wherein the repair of promutagenic damaged nucleotides is concomitant with DNA replication.
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Liu HB, Dziedzic A, Jedlicka AE, Roberts AD, Matthews KA, Jhun H, Bumpus NN, Tewari SG, Wallqvist A, Prigge ST. A mevalonate bypass system facilitates elucidation of plastid biology in malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008316. [PMID: 32059044 PMCID: PMC7046295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites rely on a plastid organelle for survival during the blood stages of infection. However, the entire organelle is dispensable as long as the isoprenoid precursor, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), is supplemented in the culture medium. We engineered parasites to produce isoprenoid precursors from a mevalonate-dependent pathway, creating a parasite line that replicates normally after the loss of the apicoplast organelle. We show that carbon-labeled mevalonate is specifically incorporated into isoprenoid products, opening new avenues for researching this essential class of metabolites in malaria parasites. We also show that essential apicoplast proteins, such as the enzyme target of the drug fosmidomycin, can be deleted in this mevalonate bypass parasite line, providing a new method to determine the roles of other important apicoplast-resident proteins. Several antibacterial drugs kill malaria parasites by targeting basic processes, such as transcription, in the organelle. We used metabolomic and transcriptomic methods to characterize parasite metabolism after azithromycin treatment triggered loss of the apicoplast and found that parasite metabolism and the production of apicoplast proteins is largely unaltered. These results provide insight into the effects of apicoplast-disrupting drugs, several of which have been used to treat malaria infections in humans. Overall, the mevalonate bypass system provides a way to probe essential aspects of apicoplast biology and study the effects of drugs that target apicoplast processes. Malaria parasites rely on an organelle called the apicoplast for growth and survival. Antimalarial drugs such as azithromycin inhibit basic processes in the apicoplast and result in the disruption of the organelle. Surprisingly, addition of a single metabolite, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), allows the parasites to survive in culture after disruption of the apicoplast. Unfortunately, using IPP to study this phenomenon has several limitations: IPP is prohibitively expensive, has to be used at high concentrations, and has a half-life less than 5 hours. To address these problems, we engineered parasites to express four enzymes from an alternative pathway capable of producing IPP in the parasites. We validated this new system and used it to metabolically label essential metabolites, to delete an essential apicoplast protein, and to characterize the state of apicoplast-disrupted parasites. A key finding from these studies comes from transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis of parasites treated with the drug azithromycin. We found that apicoplast disruption results in few changes in parasite metabolism. In particular, the expression of hundreds of nuclear-encoded apicoplast proteins are not affected by disruption of the apicoplast organelle, making it likely that apicoplast metabolic pathways and processes are still functional in apicoplast-disrupted parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P. Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hans B. Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Amanda Dziedzic
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anne E. Jedlicka
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Aleah D. Roberts
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Krista A. Matthews
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hugo Jhun
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Namandje N. Bumpus
- Department of Medicine (Division of Clinical Pharmacology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shivendra G. Tewari
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anders Wallqvist
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Ft. Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sean T. Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Contribution of introns to the species diversity associated with the apicomplexan parasite, Neospora caninum. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:431-445. [PMID: 31901106 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06561-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neospora caninum is an intracellular parasite considered a leading cause of bovine reproduction failure worldwide, and a serious neurological disease of canines. Transplacental transmission in intermediate hosts is considered the most efficient means of transmission, which strictly involves asexual reproduction. Nonetheless, extensive genetic diversity has been reported within the species. What is yet to be elucidated are the major drivers of such diversity, and their impact on important parasite phenotypes such as virulence. Instead of protein-encoding sequences, genome and transcriptome data were used to investigate SNPs in introns between two distinct N. caninum isolates, with reported differences in pathogenicity. Variant analysis identified 840 and 501 SNPs within intergenic regions and introns, respectively, distinctly concentrated on chromosomes VI and XI, whereas the rest of the genome was monomorphic in comparison. Gene ontologies for SNP-dense intron-containing genes included ATP binding, transmembrane transport, protein kinase activity, and transcription and translation processes. This study shows that variation in non-coding DNA is contributing to N. caninum intraspecies genetic diversity, and potentially influencing and contributing to important parasite mechanisms. Finally, we present an assembled and annotated N. caninum apicoplast genome and show that this essential organelle is highly conserved between the two isolates, and related Coccidia.
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Tibon NS, Ng CH, Cheong SL. Current progress in antimalarial pharmacotherapy and multi-target drug discovery. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 188:111983. [PMID: 31911292 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Discovery and development of antimalarial drugs have long been dominated by single-target therapy. Continuous effort has been made to explore and identify different targets in malaria parasite crucial for the malaria treatment. The single-target drug therapy was initially successful, but it was later supplanted by combination therapy with multiple drugs to overcome drug resistance. Emergence of resistant strains even against the combination therapy has warranted a review of current antimalarial pharmacotherapy. This has led to the development of the new concept of covalent biotherapy, in which two or more pharmacophores are chemically bound to produce hybrid antimalarial drugs with multi-target functionalities. Herein, the review initially details the current pharmacotherapy for malaria as well as the conventional and novel targets of importance identified in the malaria parasite. Then, the rationale of multi-targeted therapy for malaria, approaches taken to develop the multi-target antimalarial hybrids, and the examples of hybrid molecules are comprehensively enumerated and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Stella Tibon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chew Hee Ng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Siew Lee Cheong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Infectivity and Screening of Anti-piperaquine Genes in Mice Infected with Piperaquine-Sensitive and Piperaquine-Resistant Plasmodium berghei. Acta Parasitol 2019; 64:670-678. [PMID: 31321598 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-019-00100-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Piperaquine (PQ) is one of the major components of artemisinin-based combination therapy for malaria. However, the mechanism of PQ resistance has remained unclear. METHODS In this study, we infected mice with PQ-resistant Plasmodium berghei ANKA strain line (PbPQR) or PQ-sensitive P. berghei ANKA strain line (PbPQS) and their survival rates, parasitemia, and spleen sizes were compared. In addition, we constructed genomic DNA subtractive library of spleens from the infected mice, and screened the potential PQ-resistant related genes from genomic DNA of PbPQR line using the representational difference analysis (RDA) method. Clones of the subtractive library were screened by PCR, and related genes were sequenced and analyzed using BLAST software of NCBI. RESULTS Compared to PbPQS-infected mice, PbPQR-infected mice survived significantly longer, and had significantly lowered parasitemia rate and significantly increased splenomegaly. Among the total of 502 clones picked, 494 were sequenced and 96 unique PCR fragments were obtained; in which 24 DNA fragments were homologous to chromosomes related to immune function of mice. ORF Finder blasting showed that at the protein level, 26 encoded proteins were homologous to 18 hypothetical PbANKA proteins and 13 encoded proteins were homologous to "ferlin-like protein" family of PbANKA. In addition, there were more immune-related DNA molecules, ubiquitous PbANKA homology at the ORF fragment level, and enriched ferlin-like protein families identified from PbPQR-infected mice than those from PbPQS-infected mice. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that PbPQR may induce stronger protective immune response than that of PbPQS in infected mice.
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Targeting the apicoplast in malaria. Biochem Soc Trans 2019; 47:973-983. [PMID: 31383817 DOI: 10.1042/bst20170563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be one of the leading causes of human mortality in the world, and the therapies available are insufficient for eradication. Severe malaria is caused by the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium falciparum Apicomplexan parasites, including the Plasmodium spp., are descendants of photosynthetic algae, and therefore they possess an essential plastid organelle, named the apicoplast. Since humans and animals have no plastids, the apicoplast is an attractive target for drug development. Indeed, after its discovery, the apicoplast was found to host the target pathways of some known antimalarial drugs, which motivated efforts for further research into its biological functions and biogenesis. Initially, many apicoplast inhibitions were found to result in 'delayed death', whereby parasite killing is seen only at the end of one invasion-egress cycle. This slow action is not in line with the current standard for antimalarials, which seeded scepticism about the potential of compounds targeting apicoplast functions as good candidates for drug development. Intriguingly, recent evidence of apicoplast inhibitors causing rapid killing could put this organelle back in the spotlight. We provide an overview of drugs known to inhibit apicoplast pathways, alongside recent findings in apicoplast biology that may provide new avenues for drug development.
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Yadav DK, Kumar S, Teli MK, Yadav R, Chaudhary S. Molecular Targets for Malarial Chemotherapy: A Review. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:861-873. [DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190603080000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The malaria parasite resistance to the existing drugs is a serious problem to the currently used
antimalarials and, thus, highlights the urgent need to develop new and effective anti-malarial molecules.
This could be achieved either by the identification of the new drugs for the validated targets or by further
refining/improving the existing antimalarials; or by combining previously effective agents with
new/existing drugs to have a synergistic effect that counters parasite resistance; or by identifying novel
targets for the malarial chemotherapy. In this review article, a comprehensive collection of some of the
novel molecular targets has been enlisted for the antimalarial drugs. The targets which could be deliberated
for developing new anti-malarial drugs could be: membrane biosynthesis, mitochondrial system,
apicoplasts, parasite transporters, shikimate pathway, hematin crystals, parasite proteases, glycolysis,
isoprenoid synthesis, cell cycle control/cycline dependent kinase, redox system, nucleic acid metabolism,
methionine cycle and the polyamines, folate metabolism, the helicases, erythrocyte G-protein, and
farnesyl transferases. Modern genomic tools approaches such as structural biology and combinatorial
chemistry, novel targets could be identified followed by drug development for drug resistant strains providing
wide ranges of novel targets in the development of new therapy. The new approaches and targets
mentioned in the manuscript provide a basis for the development of new unique strategies for antimalarial
therapy with limited off-target effects in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dharmendra K. Yadav
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Hambakmoeiro, 191, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-799, South Korea
| | - Surendra Kumar
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Hambakmoeiro, 191, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-799, South Korea
| | - Mahesh K. Teli
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Hambakmoeiro, 191, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-799, South Korea
| | - Ravikant Yadav
- Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jawaharlal Nehru Marg, Jaipur-302017, India
| | - Sandeep Chaudhary
- Laboratory of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jawaharlal Nehru Marg, Jaipur-302017, India
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Human cyclosporiasis. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2019; 19:e226-e236. [PMID: 30885589 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(18)30789-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyclospora species are socioeconomically important protistan pathogens. Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually transmitted via food or water to a human host via the faecal-oral route and can cause the gastrointestinal disease cyclosporiasis, which can be complicated by extra-intestinal disorders, particularly in immune-compromised people. Although more than 2 million children die each year from diarrhoeal diseases worldwide, it is not known to what extent cyclosporiasis is involved. Few epidemiological data are available on Cyclospora as a water-borne and food-borne pathogen in both underprivileged communities and developed countries. To gain an improved understanding of human cyclosporiasis, this Review describes the background of Cyclospora, summarises salient aspects of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis, and explores what is known about its prevalence and geographical distribution. The findings show that the effect on human health of cyclosporiasis is likely underestimated, and recommendations are made about areas of future research and the prevention and control of this disease within an international collaborative context.
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Chellapandi P, Prathiviraj R, Prisilla A. Molecular evolution and functional divergence of IspD homologs in malarial parasites. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 65:340-349. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Kimata-Ariga Y, Yuasa S, Saitoh T, Fukuyama H, Hase T. Plasmodium-specific basic amino acid residues important for the interaction with ferredoxin on the surface of ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase. J Biochem 2018; 164:231-237. [PMID: 29688515 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvy045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) possesses a plastid-derived, essential organelle called the apicoplast, which contains a redox system comprising plant-type ferredoxin (Fd) and Fd-NADP+ reductase (FNR). This system supplies reducing power for the crucial metabolic pathways in this organelle. Electron transfer between P. falciparum Fd (PfFd) and FNR (PfFNR) is performed with higher affinity and specificity than that of plant Fd and FNR. To investigate the mechanism for such superior protein-protein interaction, we searched for the Fd interaction sites on the surface of PfFNR. Basic amino acid residues on the FAD binding side of PfFNR were comprehensively substituted to acidic amino acids by site-directed mutagenesis. Kinetic analysis of electron transfer to PfFd and plant Fds, physical binding to immobilized PfFd and thermodynamics of the PfFd binding using these PfFNR mutants revealed that several basic amino acid residues including those in Plasmodium-specific insertion region are important for the interaction with PfFd. Majority of these basic residues are Plasmodium-specific and not conserved among plant and cyanobacteria FNRs. These results suggest that the interaction mode of Fd and FNR is diverged during evolution so that PfFd: PfFNR interaction meets the physiological requirement in the cells of Plasmodium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Kimata-Ariga
- Department of Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Shohei Yuasa
- Laboratory of Regulation of Biological Reactions, Division of Protein Chemistry, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, 3-2 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takashi Saitoh
- Division of Pharmaceutics, Hokkaido Pharmaceutical University School of Pharmacy, 7-15-4-1 Maeda, Teine, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Haruka Fukuyama
- Department of Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Toshiharu Hase
- Laboratory of Regulation of Biological Reactions, Division of Protein Chemistry, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, 3-2 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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Ghavami M, Merino EF, Yao ZK, Elahi R, Simpson ME, Fernández-Murga ML, Butler JH, Casasanta MA, Krai PM, Totrov MM, Slade DJ, Carlier PR, Cassera MB. Biological Studies and Target Engagement of the 2- C-Methyl-d-Erythritol 4-Phosphate Cytidylyltransferase (IspD)-Targeting Antimalarial Agent (1 R,3 S)-MMV008138 and Analogs. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:549-559. [PMID: 29072835 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be one of the deadliest diseases worldwide, and the emergence of drug resistance parasites is a constant threat. Plasmodium parasites utilize the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway to synthesize isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are essential for parasite growth. Previously, we and others identified that the Malaria Box compound MMV008138 targets the apicoplast and that parasite growth inhibition by this compound can be reversed by supplementation of IPP. Further work has revealed that MMV008138 targets the enzyme 2- C-methyl-d-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (IspD) in the MEP pathway, which converts MEP and cytidine triphosphate (CTP) to cytidinediphosphate methylerythritol (CDP-ME) and pyrophosphate. In this work, we sought to gain insight into the structure-activity relationships by probing the ability of MMV008138 analogs to inhibit PfIspD recombinant enzyme. Here, we report PfIspD inhibition data for fosmidomycin (FOS) and 19 previously disclosed analogs and report parasite growth and PfIspD inhibition data for 27 new analogs of MMV008138. In addition, we show that MMV008138 does not target the recently characterized human IspD, reinforcing MMV008138 as a prototype of a new class of species-selective IspD-targeting antimalarial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Ghavami
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Emilio F. Merino
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Zhong-Ke Yao
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Rubayet Elahi
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Morgan E. Simpson
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maria L. Fernández-Murga
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Joshua H. Butler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Michael A. Casasanta
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Priscilla M. Krai
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maxim M. Totrov
- Molsoft LLC, 11199 Sorrento Valley Road, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Daniel J. Slade
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Paul R. Carlier
- Department of Chemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Hahn Hall South, 800 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- Department of Biochemistry and Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Engel Hall, 340 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, 120 Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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18
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García-Mauriño SM, Díaz-Quintana A, Rivero-Rodríguez F, Cruz-Gallardo I, Grüttner C, Hernández-Vellisca M, Díaz-Moreno I. A putative RNA binding protein from Plasmodium vivax apicoplast. FEBS Open Bio 2017; 8:177-188. [PMID: 29435408 PMCID: PMC5794462 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is caused by Apicomplexa protozoans from the Plasmodium genus entering the bloodstream of humans and animals through the bite of the female mosquitoes. The annotation of the Plasmodium vivax genome revealed a putative RNA binding protein (apiRBP) that was predicted to be trafficked into the apicoplast, a plastid organelle unique to Apicomplexa protozoans. Although a 3D structural model of the apiRBP corresponds to a noncanonical RNA recognition motif with an additional C‐terminal α‐helix (α3), preliminary protein production trials were nevertheless unsuccessful. Theoretical solvation analysis of the apiRBP model highlighted an exposed hydrophobic region clustering α3. Hence, we used a C‐terminal GFP‐fused chimera to stabilize the highly insoluble apiRBP and determined its ability to bind U‐rich stretches of RNA. The affinity of apiRBP toward such RNAs is highly dependent on ionic strength, suggesting that the apiRBP–RNA complex is driven by electrostatic interactions. Altogether, apiRBP represents an attractive tool for apicoplast transcriptional studies and for antimalarial drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofía M García-Mauriño
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
| | - Antonio Díaz-Quintana
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
| | - Francisco Rivero-Rodríguez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
| | | | - Christian Grüttner
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
| | - Marian Hernández-Vellisca
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
| | - Irene Díaz-Moreno
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (IIQ) Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Isla de la Cartuja (cicCartuja) Universidad de Sevilla Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) Sevilla Spain
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Validation of Putative Apicoplast-Targeting Drugs Using a Chemical Supplementation Assay in Cultured Human Malaria Parasites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 62:AAC.01161-17. [PMID: 29109165 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01161-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites contain a relict plastid, the apicoplast, which is considered an excellent drug target due to its bacterial-like ancestry. Numerous parasiticidals have been proposed to target the apicoplast, but few have had their actual targets substantiated. Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) production is the sole required function of the apicoplast in the blood stage of the parasite life cycle, and IPP supplementation rescues parasites from apicoplast-perturbing drugs. Hence, any drug that kills parasites when IPP is supplied in culture must have a nonapicoplast target. Here, we use IPP supplementation to discriminate whether 23 purported apicoplast-targeting drugs are on- or off-target. We demonstrate that a prokaryotic DNA replication inhibitor (ciprofloxacin), several prokaryotic translation inhibitors (chloramphenicol, doxycycline, tetracycline, clindamycin, azithromycin, erythromycin, and clarithromycin), a tRNA synthase inhibitor (mupirocin), and two IPP synthesis pathway inhibitors (fosmidomycin and FR900098) have apicoplast targets. Intriguingly, fosmidomycin and FR900098 leave the apicoplast intact, whereas the others eventually result in apicoplast loss. Actinonin, an inhibitor of bacterial posttranslational modification, does not produce a typical delayed-death response but is rescued with IPP, thereby confirming its apicoplast target. Parasites treated with putative apicoplast fatty acid pathway inhibitors could not be rescued, demonstrating that these drugs have their primary targets outside the apicoplast, which agrees with the dispensability of the apicoplast fatty acid synthesis pathways in the blood stage of malaria parasites. IPP supplementation provides a simple test of whether a compound has a target in the apicoplast and can be used to screen novel compounds for mode of action.
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20
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Mundra S, Thakur V, Bello AM, Rathore S, Asad M, Wei L, Yang J, Chakka SK, Mahesh R, Malhotra P, Mohmmed A, Kotra LP. A novel class of Plasmodial ClpP protease inhibitors as potential antimalarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:5662-5677. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Jain J, Jain SK, Walker LA, Tekwani BL. Inhibitors of ubiquitin E3 ligase as potential new antimalarial drug leads. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2017; 18:40. [PMID: 28577368 PMCID: PMC5457628 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-017-0147-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protein ubiquitylation is an important post-translational regulation, which has been shown to be necessary for life cycle progression and survival of Plasmodium falciparum. Ubiquitin is a highly conserved 76 amino acid polypeptide, which attaches covalently to target proteins through combined action of three classes of enzymes namely, the ubiquitin-activating enzyme (E1), ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2) and ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3). Ubiquitin E1 and E2 are highly conserved within eukaryotes. However, the P. falciparum E3 ligase is substantially variable and divergent compared to the homologs from other eukaryotes, which make the E3 ligase a parasite-specific target. METHODS A set of selected E3 ubiquitin ligase inhibitors was tested in vitro against a chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum D6 strain (PfD6) and a chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum W2 strain (PfW2). The inhibitors were also tested against Vero and transformed THP1 cells for cytotoxicity. The lead antimalarial E3 ubiquitin ligase inhibitors were further evaluated for the stage-specific antimalarial action and effects on cellular development of P. falciparum in vitro. Statistics analysis was done by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey and Sidak multiple comparison test using GraphPad Prism 6. RESULTS E3 ligase inhibitors namely, JNJ 26854165, HLI 373 and Nutlin 3 showed prominent antimalarial activity against PfD6 and PfW2. These inhibitors were considerably less cytotoxic to mammalian Vero cells. JNJ 26854165, HLI 373 and Nutlin 3 blocked the development of P. falciparum parasite at the trophozoite and schizont stages, resulting in accumulation of distorted trophozoites and immature schizonts. CONCLUSIONS Interruption of trophozoites and schizont maturation by the antimalarial E3 ligase inhibitors suggest the role of ubiquitin/proteasome functions in the intraerythrocytic development of malaria parasite. The ubiquitin/proteasome functions may be critical for schizont maturation. Further investigations on the lead E3 ligase inhibitors shall provide better understanding regarding the importance of E3 ligase functions in the malaria parasite as a potential new antimalarial drug target and a new class of antimalarial drug leads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagrati Jain
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA.,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Surendra K Jain
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA.,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Larry A Walker
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA.,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA. .,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA.
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McFadden GI, Yeh E. The apicoplast: now you see it, now you don't. Int J Parasitol 2016; 47:137-144. [PMID: 27773518 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Parasites such as Plasmodium and Toxoplasma possess a vestigial plastid homologous to the chloroplasts of algae and plants. The plastid (known as the apicoplast; for apicomplexan plastid) is non-photosynthetic and very much reduced, but has clear endosymbiotic ancestry including a circular genome that encodes RNAs and proteins and a suite of bacterial biosynthetic pathways. Here we review the initial discovery of the apicoplast, and recount the major new insights into apicoplast origin, biogenesis and function. We conclude by examining how the apicoplast can be removed from malaria parasites in vitro, ultimately completing its reduction by chemical supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA
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Martins-Duarte ÉS, Carias M, Vommaro R, Surolia N, de Souza W. Apicoplast fatty acid synthesis is essential for pellicle formation at the end of cytokinesis in Toxoplasma gondii. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:3320-31. [PMID: 27457282 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.185223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The apicomplexan protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, harbors an apicoplast, a plastid-like organelle with essential metabolic functions. Although the FASII fatty acid biosynthesis pathway located in the apicoplast is essential for parasite survival, the cellular effects of FASII disruption in T. gondii had not been examined in detail. Here, we combined light and electron microscopy techniques - including focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) - to characterize the effect of FASII disruption in T. gondii, by treatment with the FASII inhibitor triclosan or by inducible knockdown of the FASII component acyl carrier protein. Morphological analyses showed that FASII disruption prevented cytokinesis completion in T. gondii tachyzoites, leading to the formation of large masses of 'tethered' daughter cells. FIB-SEM showed that tethered daughters had a mature basal complex, but a defect in new membrane addition between daughters resulted in incomplete pellicle formation. Addition of exogenous fatty acids to medium suppressed the formation of tethered daughter cells and supports the notion that FASII is essential to generate lipid substrates required for the final step of parasite division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Érica S Martins-Duarte
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902 Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902
| | - Maira Carias
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902 Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902
| | - Rossiane Vommaro
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902 Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902
| | - Namita Surolia
- Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore, India, 560064
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902 Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 21.941-902
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Hovlid ML, Winzeler EA. Phenotypic Screens in Antimalarial Drug Discovery. Trends Parasitol 2016; 32:697-707. [PMID: 27247245 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2016.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic high-throughput screens are a valuable tool for identifying new chemical compounds with antimalarial activity. Traditionally, these screens have focused solely on the symptomatic asexual blood stage of the parasite life cycle; however, to discover new medicines for malaria treatment and prevention, robust screening technologies against other parasite life-cycle stages are required. This review highlights recent advances and progress toward phenotypic screening methodologies over the past several years, with a focus on exoerythrocytic stage screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa L Hovlid
- School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Winzeler
- School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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Abstract
The world health organization currently recognizes diarrhoeal diseases as a significant cause of death in children globally. Protozoan parasites such as Giardia and Entamoeba that thrive in the oxygen-deprived environment of the human gut are common etiological agents of diarrhoea. In the urogenital tract of humans, the anaerobic protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis is notorious as the most common non-viral, sexually transmitted pathogen. Even with high medical impact, our understanding of anaerobic parasite physiology is scarce and as a result, treatment choices are limited. Fluorescent proteins (FPs) are invaluable tools as genetically encoded protein tags for advancing knowledge of cellular function. These FP tags emit fluorescent colours and once attached to a protein of interest, allow tracking of parasite proteins in the dynamic cellular space. Application of green FPs-like FPs in anaerobic protozoans is hindered by their oxygen dependency. In this review, we examine aspects of anaerobic parasite biology that clash with physio-chemical properties of FPs and limit their use as live-parasite protein tags. We expose novel FPs, such as miniSOG that do not require oxygen for signal production. The potential use of novel FPs has the opportunity to leverage the anaerobe parasitologist toolkit to that of aerobe parasitologist.
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Investigating the Roles of the C-Terminal Domain of Plasmodium falciparum GyrA. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142313. [PMID: 26566222 PMCID: PMC4643928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains as one of the most deadly diseases in developing countries. The Plasmodium causative agents of human malaria such as Plasmodium falciparum possess an organelle, the apicoplast, which is the result of secondary endosymbiosis and retains its own circular DNA. A type II topoisomerase, DNA gyrase, is present in the apicoplast. In prokaryotes this enzyme is a proven, effective target for antibacterial agents, and its discovery in P. falciparum opens up the prospect of exploiting it as a drug target. Basic characterisation of P. falciparum gyrase is important because there are significant sequence differences between it and the prokaryotic enzyme. However, it has proved difficult to obtain soluble protein. Here we have predicted a new domain boundary in P. falciparum GyrA that corresponds to the C-terminal domain of prokaryotic GyrA and successfully purified it in a soluble form. Biochemical analyses revealed many similarities between the C-terminal domains of GyrA from E. coli and P. falciparum, suggesting that despite its considerably larger size, the malarial protein carries out a similar DNA wrapping function. Removal of a unique Asn-rich region in the P. falciparum protein did not result in a significant change, suggesting it is dispensable for DNA wrapping.
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Lin TY, Nagano S, Gardiner Heddle J. Functional Analyses of the Toxoplasma gondii DNA Gyrase Holoenzyme: A Janus Topoisomerase with Supercoiling and Decatenation Abilities. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14491. [PMID: 26412236 PMCID: PMC4585971 DOI: 10.1038/srep14491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of important protozoan parasites including those responsible for toxoplasmosis and malaria belong to the phylum Apicomplexa and are characterised by their possession of a relict plastid, the apicoplast. Being required for survival, apicoplasts are potentially useful drug targets and their attractiveness is increased by the fact that they contain “bacterial” gyrase, a well-established antibacterial drug target. We have cloned and purified the gyrase proteins from the apicoplast of Toxoplasma gondii (the cause of toxoplasmosis), reconstituted the functional enzyme and succeeded in characterising it. We discovered that the enzyme is inhibited by known gyrase inhibitors and that, as well as the expected supercoiling activity, it is also able to decatenate DNA with high efficiency. This unusual dual functionality may be related to the apparent lack of topoisomerase IV in the apicoplast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Yu Lin
- Heddle Initiative Research Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Soshichiro Nagano
- Heddle Initiative Research Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
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Mailu BM, Li L, Arthur J, Nelson TM, Ramasamy G, Fritz-Wolf K, Becker K, Gardner MJ. Plasmodium Apicoplast Gln-tRNAGln Biosynthesis Utilizes a Unique GatAB Amidotransferase Essential for Erythrocytic Stage Parasites. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:29629-41. [PMID: 26318454 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.655100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast indirect aminoacylation pathway utilizes a non-discriminating glutamyl-tRNA synthetase to synthesize Glu-tRNA(Gln) and a glutaminyl-tRNA amidotransferase to convert Glu-tRNA(Gln) to Gln-tRNA(Gln). Here, we show that Plasmodium falciparum and other apicomplexans possess a unique heterodimeric glutamyl-tRNA amidotransferase consisting of GatA and GatB subunits (GatAB). We localized the P. falciparum GatA and GatB subunits to the apicoplast in blood stage parasites and demonstrated that recombinant GatAB converts Glu-tRNA(Gln) to Gln-tRNA(Gln) in vitro. We demonstrate that the apicoplast GatAB-catalyzed reaction is essential to the parasite blood stages because we could not delete the Plasmodium berghei gene encoding GatA in blood stage parasites in vivo. A phylogenetic analysis placed the split between Plasmodium GatB, archaeal GatE, and bacterial GatB prior to the phylogenetic divide between bacteria and archaea. Moreover, Plasmodium GatA also appears to have emerged prior to the bacterial-archaeal phylogenetic divide. Thus, although GatAB is found in Plasmodium, it emerged prior to the phylogenetic separation of archaea and bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boniface M Mailu
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Ling Li
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Jen Arthur
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Todd M Nelson
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Gowthaman Ramasamy
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Karin Fritz-Wolf
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35392 Germany, and the Max-Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstrasse 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Katja Becker
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen 35392 Germany, and
| | - Malcolm J Gardner
- From the Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington 98109, the Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195,
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Tang K, Guo Y, Zhang L, Rowe LA, Roellig DM, Frace MA, Li N, Liu S, Feng Y, Xiao L. Genetic similarities between Cyclospora cayetanensis and cecum-infecting avian Eimeria spp. in apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:358. [PMID: 26152563 PMCID: PMC4495940 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0966-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cyclospora cayetanensis is an important cause for diarrhea in children in developing countries and foodborne outbreaks of cyclosporiasis in industrialized nations. To improve understanding of the basic biology of Cyclospora spp. and development of molecular diagnostic tools and therapeutics, we sequenced the complete apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes of C. cayetanensis. Methods The genome of one Chinese C. cayetanensis isolate was sequenced using Roche 454 and Illumina technologies. The assembled genomes of the apicoplast and mitochondrion were retrieved, annotated, and compared with reference genomes for other apicomplexans to infer genome organizations and phylogenetic relationships. Sequence variations in the mitochondrial genome were identified by comparison of two C. cayetanensis nucleotide sequences from this study and a recent publication. Results The apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes of C. cayetanensis are 34,155 and 6,229 bp in size and code for 65 and 5 genes, respectively. Comparative genomic analysis showed high similarities between C. cayetanensis and Eimeria tenella in both genomes; they have 85.6 % and 90.4 % nucleotide sequence similarities, respectively, and complete synteny in gene organization. Phylogenetic analysis of the genomic sequences confirmed the genetic similarities between cecum-infecting avian Eimeria spp. and C. cayetanensis. Like in other coccidia, both genomes of C. cayetanensis are transcribed bi-directionally. The apicoplast genome is circular, codes for the complete machinery for protein biosynthesis, and contains two inverted repeats that differ slightly in LSU rRNA gene sequences. In contrast, the mitochondrial genome has a linear concatemer or circular mapping topology. Eight single-nucleotide and one 7-bp multiple-nucleotide variants were detected between the mitochondrial genomes of C. cayetanensis from this and recent studies. Conclusions The apicoplast and mitochondrial genomes of C. cayetanensis are highly similar to those of cecum-infecting avian Eimeria spp. in both genome organization and sequences. The availability of sequence data beyond rRNA and heat shock protein genes could facilitate studies of C. cayetanensis biology and development of genotyping tools for investigations of cyclosporiasis outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Tang
- Division of Scientific Resources, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Yaqiong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China. .,Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Longxian Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China.
| | - Lori A Rowe
- Division of Scientific Resources, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Dawn M Roellig
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Michael A Frace
- Division of Scientific Resources, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Shiyou Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China. .,Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
| | - Yaoyu Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Lihua Xiao
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, 30333, USA.
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Abstract
Many protists with high ecological and medical relevance harbor plastids surrounded by four membranes. Thus, nucleus-encoded proteins of these complex plastids have to traverse these barriers. Here we report on the identification of the protein translocators located in two of the plastid surrounding membranes and present recent findings on the mechanisms of protein import into the plastids of diatoms.
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Ciprofloxacin Derivatives Affect Parasite Cell Division and Increase the Survival of Mice Infected with Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125705. [PMID: 25950173 PMCID: PMC4423777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is a worldwide disease whose clinical manifestations include encephalitis and congenital malformations in newborns. Previously, we described the synthesis of new ethyl-ester derivatives of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin with ~40-fold increased activity against T. gondii in vitro, compared with the original compound. Cipro derivatives are expected to target the parasite's DNA gyrase complex in the apicoplast. The activity of these compounds in vivo, as well as their mode of action, remained thus far uncharacterized. Here, we examined the activity of the Cipro derivatives in vivo, in a model of acute murine toxoplasmosis. In addition, we investigated the cellular effects T. gondii tachyzoites in vitro, by immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). When compared with Cipro treatment, 7-day treatments with Cipro derivatives increased mouse survival significantly, with 13-25% of mice surviving for up to 60 days post-infection (vs. complete lethality 10 days post-infection, with Cipro treatment). Light microscopy examination early (6 and 24h) post-infection revealed that 6-h treatments with Cipro derivatives inhibited the initial event of parasite cell division inside host cells, in an irreversible manner. By TEM and immunofluorescence, the main cellular effects observed after treatment with Cipro derivatives and Cipro were cell scission inhibition--with the appearance of 'tethered' parasites--malformation of the inner membrane complex, and apicoplast enlargement and missegregation. Interestingly, tethered daughter cells resulting from Cipro derivatives, and also Cipro, treatment did not show MORN1 cap or centrocone localization. The biological activity of Cipro derivatives against C. parvum, an apicomplexan species that lacks the apicoplast, is, approximately, 50 fold lower than that in T. gondii tachyzoites, supporting that these compounds targets the apicoplast. Our results show that Cipro derivatives improved the survival of mice acutely infected with T. gondii and inhibited parasite replication early in the first cycle of infection in vitro, highlighting their therapeutic potential for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Fatty acid metabolism in the Plasmodium apicoplast: Drugs, doubts and knockouts. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2015; 199:34-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Sinha S, Medhi B, Sehgal R. Challenges of drug-resistant malaria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:61. [PMID: 25402734 PMCID: PMC4234044 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2014059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Over the past six decades, the drug resistance of Plasmodium falciparum has become an issue of utmost concern. Despite the remarkable progress that has been made in recent years in reducing the mortality rate to about 30% with the scaling-up of vector control, introduction of artemisinin-based combination therapies and other malaria control strategies, the confirmation of artemisinin resistance on the Cambodia–Thailand border threatened all the previous success. This review addresses the global scenario of antimalarial resistance and factors associated with it, with the main emphasis on futuristic approaches like nanotechnology and stem cell therapy that may impede resistant malaria, along with novel medications which are preparing to enter the global antimalarial market. These novel studies are likely to escalate over the coming years and will hopefully help to reduce the burden of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Sinha
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160012, India
| | - Bikash Medhi
- Department of Pharmacology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160012, India
| | - Rakesh Sehgal
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160012, India
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Heiny SR, Pautz S, Recker M, Przyborski JM. Protein Traffic to thePlasmodium falciparumApicoplast: Evidence for a Sorting Branch Point at the Golgi. Traffic 2014; 15:1290-304. [DOI: 10.1111/tra.12226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina R. Heiny
- Parasitology, FB Biology, Philipps University Marburg; Karl von Frisch Straße 8; 35043 Marburg Germany
| | - Sabine Pautz
- Parasitology, FB Biology, Philipps University Marburg; Karl von Frisch Straße 8; 35043 Marburg Germany
| | - Mario Recker
- College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences; University of Exeter; North Park Road Exeter UK
| | - Jude M. Przyborski
- Parasitology, FB Biology, Philipps University Marburg; Karl von Frisch Straße 8; 35043 Marburg Germany
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Desgrouas C, Chapus C, Desplans J, Travaille C, Pascual A, Baghdikian B, Ollivier E, Parzy D, Taudon N. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of cepharanthine. Malar J 2014; 13:327. [PMID: 25145413 PMCID: PMC4152577 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-13-327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND New classes of anti-malarial drugs are needed to control the alarming Plasmodium falciparum resistance toward current anti-malarial therapy. The ethnopharmacological approach allows the discovery of original chemical structures from the vegetable biodiversity. Previous studies led to the selection of a bisbenzylisoquinoline, called cepharanthine and isolated from a Cambodian plant: Stephania rotunda. Cepharanthine could exert a mechanism of action different from commonly used drugs. Potential plasmodial targets are reported here. METHODS To study the mechanism of action of cepharanthine, a combined approach using phenotypic and transcriptomic techniques was undertaken. RESULTS Cepharanthine blocked P. falciparum development in ring stage. On a culture of synchronized ring stage, the comparisons of expression profiles showed that the samples treated with 5 μM of cepharanthine (IC90) were significantly closer to the initial controls than to the final ones. After a two-way ANOVA (p-value < 0.05) on the microarray results, 1,141 probes among 9,722 presented a significant differential expression.A gene ontology analysis showed that the Maurer's clefts seem particularly down-regulated by cepharanthine. The analysis of metabolic pathways showed an impact on cell-cell interactions (cytoadherence and rosetting), glycolysis and isoprenoid pathways. Organellar functions, more particularly constituted by apicoplast and mitochondrion, are targeted too. CONCLUSION The blockage at the ring stage by cepharanthine is described for the first time. Transcriptomic approach confirmed that cepharanthine might have a potential innovative antiplasmodial mechanism of action. Thus, cepharanthine might play an ongoing role in the progress on anti-malarial drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Desgrouas
- />UMR-MD3, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Faculté de Pharmacie, Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Bd Jean Moulin CS30064 13385 Marseille cedex 5, Marseille, France
| | - Charles Chapus
- />UMR-MD3, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, BP73 91223 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
| | - Jérôme Desplans
- />UMR-MD3, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Faculté de Pharmacie, Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Bd Jean Moulin CS30064 13385 Marseille cedex 5, Marseille, France
| | - Christelle Travaille
- />Trypanosome Cell Biology Unit, CNRS URA2581 and Parasitology Department, Institut Pasteur, 25 rue du Docteur Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Aurélie Pascual
- />Département d’Infectiologie de Terrain, Unité de Parasitologie, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France
| | - Béatrice Baghdikian
- />UMR-MD3, Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie et Ethnopharmacologie, Faculté de Pharmacie, Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Bd Jean Moulin 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, Marseille, France
| | - Evelyne Ollivier
- />UMR-MD3, Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie et Ethnopharmacologie, Faculté de Pharmacie, Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Bd Jean Moulin 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, Marseille, France
| | - Daniel Parzy
- />UMR-MD3, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Faculté de Pharmacie, Aix-Marseille Université, 27 Bd Jean Moulin CS30064 13385 Marseille cedex 5, Marseille, France
| | - Nicolas Taudon
- />UMR-MD3, Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, BP73 91223 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
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Antiapicoplast and gametocytocidal screening to identify the mechanisms of action of compounds within the malaria box. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:811-9. [PMID: 24247137 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01500-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a significant infectious disease that causes millions of clinical cases and >800,000 deaths per year. The Malaria Box is a collection of 400 commercially available chemical entities that have antimalarial activity. The collection contains 200 drug-like compounds, based on their oral absorption and the presence of known toxicophores, and 200 probe-like compounds, which are intended to represent a broad structural diversity. These compounds have confirmed activities against the asexual intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum and low cytotoxicities, but their mechanisms of action and their activities in other stages of the parasite's life cycle remain to be determined. The apicoplast is considered to be a promising source of malaria-specific targets, and its main function during intraerythrocytic stages is to provide the isoprenoid precursor isopentenyl diphosphate, which can be used for phenotype-based screens to identify compounds targeting this organelle. We screened 400 compounds from the Malaria Box using apicoplast-targeting phenotypic assays to identify their potential mechanisms of action. We identified one compound that specifically targeted the apicoplast. Further analyses indicated that the molecular target of this compound may differ from those of the current antiapicoplast drugs, such as fosmidomycin. Moreover, in our efforts to elucidate the mechanisms of action of compounds from the Malaria Box, we evaluated their activities against other stages of the life cycle of the parasite. Gametocytes are the transmission stage of the malaria parasite and are recognized as a priority target in efforts to eradicate malaria. We identified 12 compounds that were active against gametocytes with 50% inhibitory concentration values of <1 μM.
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Spavieri J, Allmendinger A, Kaiser M, Itoe MA, Blunden G, Mota MM, Tasdemir D. Assessment of dual life stage antiplasmodial activity of british seaweeds. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:4019-34. [PMID: 24152562 PMCID: PMC3826147 DOI: 10.3390/md11104019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Terrestrial plants have proven to be a prolific producer of clinically effective antimalarial drugs, but the antimalarial potential of seaweeds has been little explored. The main aim of this study was to assess the in vitro chemotherapeutical and prophylactic potential of the extracts of twenty-three seaweeds collected from the south coast of England against blood stage (BS) and liver stage (LS) Plasmodium parasites. The majority (14) of the extracts were active against BS of P. falciparum, with brown seaweeds Cystoseira tamariscifolia, C. baccata and the green seaweed Ulva lactuca being the most active (IC(50)s around 3 μg/mL). The extracts generally had high selectivity indices (>10). Eight seaweed extracts inhibited the growth of LS parasites of P. berghei without any obvious effect on the viability of the human hepatoma (Huh7) cells, and the highest potential was exerted by U. lactuca and red seaweeds Ceramium virgatum and Halopitys incurvus (IC50 values 14.9 to 28.8 μg/mL). The LS-active extracts inhibited one or more key enzymes of the malarial type-II fatty acid biosynthesis (FAS-II) pathway, a drug target specific for LS. Except for the red seaweed Halopitys incurvus, all LS-active extracts showed dual activity versus both malarial intracellular stage parasites. This is the first report of LS antiplasmodial activity and dual stage inhibitory potential of seaweeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Spavieri
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of London, London WC1N 1AX, UK; E-Mails: (J.S.); (A.A.)
| | - Andrea Allmendinger
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of London, London WC1N 1AX, UK; E-Mails: (J.S.); (A.A.)
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel CH-4002, Switzerland; E-Mail:
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel CH-4003, Switzerland
| | - Maurice Ayamba Itoe
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.A.I.); (M.M.M.)
| | - Gerald Blunden
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK; E-Mail:
| | - Maria M. Mota
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon 1649-028, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.A.I.); (M.M.M.)
| | - Deniz Tasdemir
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of London, London WC1N 1AX, UK; E-Mails: (J.S.); (A.A.)
- School of Chemistry, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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38
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Mailu BM, Ramasamay G, Mudeppa DG, Li L, Lindner SE, Peterson MJ, DeRocher AE, Kappe SHI, Rathod PK, Gardner MJ. A nondiscriminating glutamyl-tRNA synthetase in the plasmodium apicoplast: the first enzyme in an indirect aminoacylation pathway. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:32539-32552. [PMID: 24072705 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.507467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and related organisms possess a relict plastid known as the apicoplast. Apicoplast protein synthesis is a validated drug target in malaria because antibiotics that inhibit translation in prokaryotes also inhibit apicoplast protein synthesis and are sometimes used for malaria prophylaxis or treatment. We identified components of an indirect aminoacylation pathway for Gln-tRNA(Gln) biosynthesis in Plasmodium that we hypothesized would be essential for apicoplast protein synthesis. Here, we report our characterization of the first enzyme in this pathway, the apicoplast glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (GluRS). We expressed the recombinant P. falciparum enzyme in Escherichia coli, showed that it is nondiscriminating because it glutamylates both apicoplast tRNA(Glu) and tRNA(Gln), determined its kinetic parameters, and demonstrated its inhibition by a known bacterial GluRS inhibitor. We also localized the Plasmodium berghei ortholog to the apicoplast in blood stage parasites but could not delete the PbGluRS gene. These data show that Gln-tRNA(Gln) biosynthesis in the Plasmodium apicoplast proceeds via an essential indirect aminoacylation pathway that is reminiscent of bacteria and plastids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boniface M Mailu
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | | | - Devaraja G Mudeppa
- the Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700
| | - Ling Li
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Scott E Lindner
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Megan J Peterson
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Amy E DeRocher
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109,; the Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Pradipsinh K Rathod
- the Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700; the Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Malcolm J Gardner
- From the Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109,; the Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195.
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