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Gao Y, Wu X, Zhao N, Bai D. Scientific connotation of the compatibility of traditional Chinese medicine from the perspective of the intestinal flora. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1152858. [PMID: 37538183 PMCID: PMC10395102 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1152858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Revealing the connotation of the compatibility of Chinese medicines (CM) is a requirement for the modernization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, no consensus exists on the specific mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine compatibility (TCMC). Many studies have shown that the occurrence and development of diseases and the efficacy of CM are closely related to intestinal flora (IF), which may provide a new perspective to understand the theory of TCM. This study aimed to summarize the relationship between the changes in IF before and after the compatibility of different drugs and the synergistic, toxicity reduction, and incompatibility effects of drug pairs from the perspective of the effects of CM on the IF and the regulation of microbial metabolites. These studies showed that the effect of drug pairs on the composition of the IF is not a simple superposition of two single drugs, and that the drug pairs also play a specific role in regulating the production of intestinal bacterial metabolites; therefore, it has a different pharmacodynamic effect, which may provide a perspective to clarify the compatibility mechanism. However, research on the interpretation of the scientific connotations of TCMC from the perspective of the IF is still in its infancy and has limitations. Therefore, this study aimed to summarize previous research experience and proposed to conduct a deep and systematic study from the perspective of drug pair dismantling, IF, intestinal bacteria metabolite, organism, and disease to provide a reference for scientific research on the compatibility mechanism of CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Fang Zheng Center, Institute of Basic Theory for Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxia Wu
- Experimental Research Center, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Fang Zheng Center, Institute of Basic Theory for Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiyuan Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Bai
- Fang Zheng Center, Institute of Basic Theory for Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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2
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The Impact of Nutrient Intake and Metabolic Wastes during Pregnancy on Offspring Hypertension: Challenges and Future Opportunities. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13030418. [PMID: 36984857 PMCID: PMC10052993 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13030418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypertension can have its origin in early life. During pregnancy, many metabolic alterations occur in the mother that have a crucial role in fetal development. In response to maternal insults, fetal programming may occur after metabolic disturbance, resulting in programmed hypertension later in life. Maternal dietary nutrients act as metabolic substrates for various metabolic processes via nutrient-sensing signals. Different nutrient-sensing pathways that detect levels of sugars, amino acids, lipids and energy are integrated during pregnancy, while disturbed nutrient-sensing signals have a role in the developmental programming of hypertension. Metabolism-modulated metabolites and nutrient-sensing signals are promising targets for new drug discovery due to their pathogenic link to hypertension programming. Hence, in this review, we pay particular attention to the maternal nutritional insults and metabolic wastes affecting fetal programming. We then discuss the role of nutrient-sensing signals linking the disturbed metabolism to hypertension programming. This review also summarizes current evidence to give directions for future studies regarding how to prevent hypertension via reprogramming strategies, such as nutritional intervention, targeting nutrient-sensing signals, and reduction of metabolic wastes. Better prevention for hypertension may be possible with the help of novel early-life interventions that target altered metabolism.
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Yamada S, Tanaka S, Arase H, Hiyamuta H, Kitamura H, Tokumoto M, Mitsuiki K, Tsuruya K, Kitazono T, Nakano T. Association between prevalence of laxative use and history of bone fractures and cardiovascular diseases in patients with chronic kidney disease: the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry (FKR) study. Clin Exp Nephrol 2023; 27:151-160. [PMID: 36318395 DOI: 10.1007/s10157-022-02289-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Constipation is a common complication in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and is involved in the pathogenesis of dysbiosis and progression of CKD. However, little is known about its association with disorders of the bone-cardiovascular axis in patients with CKD. METHODS We performed a cross-sectional analysis of 3878 patients with CKD using the baseline dataset of the Fukuoka Kidney disease Registry study, as a multicenter, prospective cohort study of pre-dialysis CKD patients. The main exposure of interest was constipation defined as use of at least one type of laxative. The main outcomes were the histories of bone fractures and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) as manifestations of disorders of the bone-cardiovascular axis. RESULTS The prevalences of laxative use and histories of bone fractures and CVDs increased as kidney function declined. Among the 3878 patients, 532 (13.7%) patients used laxatives, 235 (6.1%) patients had prior bone fractures, and 1001 (25.8%) patients had prior CVDs. Histories of bone fractures and CVDs were significantly more prevalent among laxative users (P < 0.05). Multivariable-adjusted logistic regression analysis revealed that patients with laxatives had a significantly higher odds ratios for histories of bone fractures and CVDs than those without laxatives [adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) 1.67 (1.20-2.31) and 1.70 (1.30-2.22), respectively, P < 0.05]. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that constipation indicated by laxative use is associated with increased prevalences of historical bone fractures and CVDs in pre-dialysis patients with CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Yamada
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Shigeru Tanaka
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Hokuto Arase
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Hiroto Hiyamuta
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Kitamura
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Masanori Tokumoto
- Division of Nephrology, Japanese Red Cross Fukuoka Hospital, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Koji Mitsuiki
- Division of Nephrology, Harasanshin Hospital, Fukuoka, Japan
| | | | - Takanari Kitazono
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Nakano
- Department of Medicine and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 8128582, Japan.
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4
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Tain YL, Hsu CN. Role of the Gut Microbiota in Children with Kidney Disease. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:children10020269. [PMID: 36832398 PMCID: PMC9955067 DOI: 10.3390/children10020269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Disruption of the composition and structure of the gut microbiota, namely dysbiosis, dictates the pathophysiology of kidney diseases. The bidirectional kidney-gut axis is of interest in chronic kidney disease (CKD); the uremic milieu leads to intestinal dysbiosis and gut microbial metabolites and toxins implicated in the loss of kidney function and increased comorbidity burden. Considering that kidney diseases can originate in childhood or even earlier in fetal life, identification of the pathogenetic connection between gut microbiota dysbiosis and the development of pediatric renal diseases deserves more attention. This review concentrates on the pathogenic link between dysbiotic gut microbiota and pediatric renal diseases, covering CKD, kidney transplantation, hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis, and idiopathic nephrotic syndrome. Gut microbiota-targeted therapies including dietary intervention, probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics and fecal microbial transplantation are discussed for their potential for the treatment of pediatric renal diseases. A deeper understanding of gut microbiota in pediatric renal diseases will aid in developing innovative gut microbiota-targeted interventions for preventing or attenuating the global burden of kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- You-Lin Tain
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
- Institute for Translational Research in Biomedicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ning Hsu
- Department of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-975-368-975; Fax: +886-7733-8009
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5
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Du J, Yang M, Zhang Z, Cao B, Wang Z, Han J. The modulation of gut microbiota by herbal medicine to alleviate diabetic kidney disease - A review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1032208. [PMID: 36452235 PMCID: PMC9702521 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1032208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The treatment of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) has been the key concern of the medical community. Herbal medicine has been reported to alleviate intestinal dysbiosis, promote the excretion of toxic metabolites, and reduce the secretion of uremic toxins. However, the current understanding of the modulation of the gut microbiota by herbal medicine to delay the progression of DKD is still insufficient. Consequently, we reviewed the knowledge based on peer-reviewed English-language journals regarding regulating gut microbiota by herbal medicines in DKD. It was found that herbal medicine or their natural extracts may have the following effects: modulating the composition of intestinal flora, particularly Akkermansia, Lactobacillus, and Bacteroidetes, as well as adjusting the F/B ratio; increasing the production of SCFAs and restoring the intestinal barrier; reducing the concentration of uremic toxins (p-cresol sulfate, indole sulfate, TMAO); inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Du
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Meina Yang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Department of Endocrinology and Metabology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Zhongwen Zhang
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Rheumatic Disease and Translational Medicine, Department of Endocrinology and Metabology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Baorui Cao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhiying Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Jinxiang Han
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology Drugs (Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Biomedical Sciences College, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
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6
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Beker BM, Colombo I, Gonzalez-Torres H, Musso CG. Decreasing microbiota-derived uremic toxins to improve CKD outcomes. Clin Kidney J 2022; 15:2214-2219. [PMID: 36381370 PMCID: PMC9664568 DOI: 10.1093/ckj/sfac154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is set to become the fifth-leading global cause of death by 2040. This illustrates the many unknowns regarding its pathogenesis and therapy. A key unknown relates to the therapeutic impact of the interaction between CKD and the gut microbiome. The normal gut microbiome is essential for body homeostasis. There is evidence for multiple interactions between the microbiota and CKD—its causes, comorbidities and therapeutic interventions—that are only starting to be unraveled. Thus uremic retention products, such as urea itself, modify the gut microbiota biology and both dietary and drug prescriptions modify the composition and function of the microbiota. Conversely, the microbiota may influence the progression and manifestations of CKD through the production of biologically active compounds (e.g. short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate and crotonate) and precursors of uremic toxins. The present review addresses these issues and their relevance for novel therapeutic approaches ranging from dietary interventions to prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and postbiotics, to the prevention of the absorption of microbial metabolites and to increased clearance of uremic toxins of bacterial origin through optimized dialysis techniques or blockade of tubular cell transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braian M Beker
- Human Physiology Department, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Iara Colombo
- Human Physiology Department, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Henry Gonzalez-Torres
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Simón Bolívar , Barranquilla , Colombia
- Doctorado en Ciencias Biomédicas. Universidad del Valle, Cali , Valle del Cauca , Colombia
| | - Carlos G Musso
- Human Physiology Department, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires , Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad Simón Bolívar , Barranquilla , Colombia
- Research Department, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires , Buenos Aires , Argentina
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7
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Determinants of Hemodialysis Performance: Modeling Fluid and Solute Transport in Hollow-Fiber Dialyzers. REGENERATIVE ENGINEERING AND TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2021; 7:291-300. [PMID: 34926787 DOI: 10.1007/s40883-019-00135-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Hemodialysis constitutes the lifeline of patients with end stage renal disease, yet the parameters that affect hemodialyzer performance remain incompletely understood. We developed a computational model of mass transfer and solute transport in a hollow-fiber dialyzer to gain greater insight into the determinant factors. The model predicts fluid velocity, pressure, and solute concentration profiles for given geometric characteristics, membrane transport properties, and inlet conditions. We examined the impact of transport and structural parameters on uremic solute clearance by varying parameter values within the constraints of standard clinical practice. The model was validated by comparison with published experimental data. Our results suggest solute clearance can be significantly altered by changes in blood and dialysate flow rates, fiber radius and length, and net ultrafiltration rate. Our model further suggests that the main determinant of the clearance of unreactive solutes is their diffusive permeability. The clearance of protein-bound toxins is also strongly determined by blood hematocrit and plasma protein concentrations. Results from this model may serve to optimize hemodialyzer operating conditions in clinical practice to achieve better clearance of pathogenic uremic solutes.
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8
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Mosterd CM, Kanbay M, van den Born BJH, van Raalte DH, Rampanelli E. Intestinal microbiota and diabetic kidney diseases: the Role of microbiota and derived metabolites inmodulation of renal inflammation and disease progression. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2021; 35:101484. [PMID: 33546983 DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2021.101484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) represents a growing public health burden and is the leading cause of end-stage kidney diseases. In recent years, host-gut microbiota interactions have emerged as an integral part for host homeostasis. In the context of nephropathies, mounting evidence supports a bidirectional microbiota-kidney crosstalk, which becomes particularly manifest during progressive kidney dysfunction. Indeed, in chronic kidney disease (CKD), the "healthy" microbiota structure is disrupted and intestinal microbes produce large quantities of uremic solutes responsible for renal damage; on the other hand, the uremic state, fueled by reduced renal clearance, causes shifts in microbial metabolism and composition, hence creating a vicious cycle in which dysbiosis and renal dysfunction are progressively worsened. In this review, we will summarize the evidence from clinical/experimental studies concerning the occurrence of gut dysbiosis in diabetic and non-diabetic CKD, discuss the functional consequences of dysbiosis for CKD progression and debate putative therapeutic interventions targeting the intestinal microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Mosterd
- Department of Internal and Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUmc, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - M Kanbay
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Koc University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - B J H van den Born
- Department of Nephrology and Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Location AMC, the Netherlands
| | - D H van Raalte
- Diabetes Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUmc, Diabetes Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - E Rampanelli
- Department of Experimental Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Location AMC, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Amsterdam Gastroenterology Endocrinology Metabolism, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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9
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Guan Y, Chen K, Quan D, Kang L, Yang D, Wu H, Yan M, Wu S, Lv L, Zhang G. The Combination of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi and Sophora japonica L. ameliorate Renal Function by Regulating Gut Microbiota in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:575294. [PMID: 33643031 PMCID: PMC7907655 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.575294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is becoming a notable health concern globally. The combination of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (SB) and Sophora japonica L. (SJ) has been demonstrated to have anti-hypertensive effects and improve kidney injury clinically. This study aimed to explore the renal protective effect of the combination of SB and SJ against CKD and clarify the potential mechanisms. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were used to induce hypertensive nephropathy and were treated with SB or SJ separately or in combination for 15 weeks, and an antibiotic group was used for a rescue experiment. Blood pressure, serum or urine biochemical markers, serum inflammation factors, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), indoxyl sulfate (IS), and oxidative stress indicators were assessed. Western blot analysis was performed to determine the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, including occludin and ZO-1. The mRNA expression of the SCFAs receptors olfactory 78 (Olfr78) and G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41) was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Gut microbiota profiles were established via high-throughput sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. SB and SJ significantly ameliorated the severity of renal injury induced by hypertension. The combination also decreased the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus, and reduced that of Clostridiaceae. The intestinal barrier was improved, and the change in dominant bacteria reduced IS accumulation and further inhibited oxidative stress activation in kidneys. SB and SJ increased SCFAs production, inhibited inflammatory factor release, and regulated blood pressure by decreasing the expression of Olfr78 and increasing that of GPR41, then alleviated kidney damage. This research demonstrated the positive effects of SB and SJ in a rat model of hypertensive nephropathy, indicated that the treatment of SB and SJ by improving the intestinal barrier function, increasing SCFAs, reducing inflammation, decreasing IS, and inhibiting oxidative stress reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqing Guan
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kai Chen
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongling Quan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liangqi Kang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Danni Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huanxian Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengqiu Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shaoyu Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin Lv
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guohua Zhang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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10
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Targeting Uremic Toxins to Prevent Peripheral Vascular Complications in Chronic Kidney Disease. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120808. [PMID: 33419312 PMCID: PMC7765928 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) exhibits progressive kidney dysfunction and leads to disturbed homeostasis, including accumulation of uremic toxins, activated renin-angiotensin system, and increased oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines. Patients with CKD are prone to developing the peripheral vascular disease (PVD), leading to poorer outcomes than those without CKD. Cumulative evidence has showed that the synergy of uremic milieu and PVD could exaggerate vascular complications such as limb ischemia, amputation, stenosis, or thrombosis of a dialysis vascular access, and increase mortality risk. The role of uremic toxins in the pathogenesis of vascular dysfunction in CKD has been investigated. Moreover, growing evidence has shown the promising role of uremic toxins as a therapeutic target for PVD in CKD. This review focused on uremic toxins in the pathophysiology, in vitro and animal models, and current novel clinical approaches in reducing the uremic toxin to prevent peripheral vascular complications in CKD patients.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION The colon has an important role in managing nitrogenous waste products, electrolytes, and mineral balance during kidney diseases. However, colonic microbiota produces uremic toxins, such as indoxyl sulfate and p-cresyl sulfate, in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, which due to their proinflammatory properties contribute to CKD progression. Conversely, in acute renal injury patients, intestinal microbiota could reduce inflammation by secreting short-chain fatty acids and inducing a renal protective immune response. However, since the intestines are the most frequently affected organ in advanced sepsis, colonic microbiota can also represent a negative factor for kidney health in this scenario. CONCLUSION In the present review, the main characteristics of kidney-gut crosstalk are described.
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Popowski E, Kohl B, Schneider T, Jankowski J, Schulze-Tanzil G. Uremic Toxins and Ciprofloxacin Affect Human Tenocytes In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21124241. [PMID: 32545914 PMCID: PMC7353042 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21124241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendinopathy is a rare but serious complication of quinolone therapy. Risk factors associated with quinolone-induced tendon disorders include chronic kidney disease accompanied by the accumulation of uremic toxins. Hence, the present study explored the effects of the representative uremic toxins phenylacetic acid (PAA) and quinolinic acid (QA), both alone and in combination with ciprofloxacin (CPX), on human tenocytes in vitro. Tenocytes incubated with uremic toxins +/- CPX were investigated for metabolic activity, vitality, expression of the dominant extracellular tendon matrix (ECM) protein type I collagen, cell-matrix receptor β1-integrin, proinflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β, and the ECM-degrading enzyme matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1. CPX, when administered at high concentrations (100 mM), suppressed tenocyte metabolism after 8 h exposure and at therapeutic concentrations after 72 h exposure. PAA reduced tenocyte metabolism only after 72 h exposure to very high doses and when combined with CPX. QA, when administered alone, led to scarcely any cytotoxic effect. Combinations of CPX with PAA or QA did not cause greater cytotoxicity than incubation with CPX alone. Gene expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β was reduced by CPX but up-regulated by PAA and QA. Protein levels of type I collagen decreased in response to high CPX doses, whereas PAA and QA did not affect its synthesis significantly. MMP-1 mRNA levels were increased by CPX. This effect became more pronounced in the form of a synergism following exposure to a combination of CPX and PAA. CPX was more tenotoxic than the uremic toxins PAA and QA, which showed only distinct suppressive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erman Popowski
- Department of Traumatology and Reconstructive Surgery, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (E.P.); (B.K.); (T.S.)
| | - Benjamin Kohl
- Department of Traumatology and Reconstructive Surgery, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (E.P.); (B.K.); (T.S.)
| | - Tobias Schneider
- Department of Traumatology and Reconstructive Surgery, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203 Berlin, Germany; (E.P.); (B.K.); (T.S.)
- Institute of Anatomy, Paracelsus Private Medical University, Nuremberg and Salzburg, Nuremberg, Prof. Ernst Nathan Str. 1, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Joachim Jankowski
- Institute for Molecular Cardiovascular Research (IMCAR), RWTH Aachen, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Experimental Vascular Pathology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Gundula Schulze-Tanzil
- Experimental Vascular Pathology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)911-398-6772
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13
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Bush KT, Singh P, Nigam SK. Gut-derived uremic toxin handling in vivo requires OAT-mediated tubular secretion in chronic kidney disease. JCI Insight 2020; 5:133817. [PMID: 32271169 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.133817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the renal organic anion transporters OAT1 (also known as SLC22A6, originally identified as NKT) and OAT3 (also known as SLC22A8) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains poorly understood. This is particularly so from the viewpoint of residual proximal tubular secretion, a key adaptive mechanism to deal with protein-bound uremic toxins in CKD. Using the subtotal nephrectomy (STN) model, plasma metabolites accumulating in STN rats treated with and without the OAT inhibitor, probenecid, were identified. Comparisons with metabolomics data from Oat1-KO and Oat3-KO mice support the centrality of the OATs in residual tubular secretion of uremic solutes, such as indoxyl sulfate, kynurenate, and anthranilate. Overlapping our data with those of published metabolomics data regarding gut microbiome-derived uremic solutes - which can have dual roles in signaling and toxicity - indicates that OATs play a critical role in determining their plasma levels in CKD. Thus, the OATs, along with other SLC and ABC drug transporters, are critical to the movement of uremic solutes across tissues and into various body fluids, consistent with the remote sensing and signaling theory. The data support a role for OATs in modulating remote interorganismal and interorgan communication (gut microbiota-blood-liver-kidney-urine). The results also have implications for understanding drug-metabolite interactions involving uremic toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Bush
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Prabhleen Singh
- Division of Nephrology-Hypertension, University of California, San Diego and Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sanjay K Nigam
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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14
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Yamaguchi K, Yisireyili M, Goto S, Kato K, Cheng XW, Nakayama T, Matsushita T, Niwa T, Murohara T, Takeshita K. Indoxyl Sulfate-induced Vascular Calcification is mediated through Altered Notch Signaling Pathway in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells. Int J Med Sci 2020; 17:2703-2717. [PMID: 33162798 PMCID: PMC7645353 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.43184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The aim of this study was to determine the role of Notch in indoxyl sulfate (IS)-induced vascular calcification (VC). Materials and methods: VC and expression of Notch-related and osteogenic molecules were examined in Dahl salt-sensitive (DS), DS hypertensive (DH), and DH IS-treated rats (DH+IS). The effects of IS on expression of Notch receptors, apoptotic activity, and calcification were examined in cultured aortic smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Results: Medial calcification was noted only in aortas and coronary arteries of DH+IS rats. Notch1, Notch3, and Hes-1 were expressed in aortic SMCs of all rats, but only weakly in the central areas of the media and around the calcified lesions in DH+IS rats. RT-PCR and western blotting of DH+IS rat aortas showed downregulation of Notch ligands, Notch1 and Notch3, downstream transcriptional factors, and SM22, and conversely, overexpression of osteogenic markers. Expression of Notch1 and Notch3 in aortic SMCs was highest in incubation under 500 μM IS for 24hrs, and then decreased time- and dose-dependently. Coupled with this decrease, IS increased caspase 3/7 activity and TUNEL-positive aortic SMCs. In addition, pharmacological Notch signal inhibition with DAPT induced apoptosis in aortic SMCs. ZVAD, a caspase inhibitor abrogated IS-induced and DAPT-induced in vitro vascular calcification. Knockdown of Notch1 and Notch3 cooperatively increased expression of osteogenic transcriptional factors and decreased expression of SM22. Conclusion: Our results suggested that IS-induced VC is mediated through suppression of Notch activity in aortic SMCs, induction of osteogenic differentiation and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutoshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Cardiology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Maimaiti Yisireyili
- Department of Cardiology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Sumie Goto
- Biomedical Research Laboratories, Kureha Co., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsuhiro Kato
- Department of Cardiology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Xian Wu Cheng
- Department of Cardiology/Hypertension and Heart Center, Yanbian University Hospital, Yanji, Jilin, China.,Department of Community Health and Geriatrics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nakayama
- Department of Blood Transfusion, Aichi Medical University Hospital, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Tadashi Matsushita
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan.,Department of Blood Transfusion, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | - Toyoaki Murohara
- Department of Cardiology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kyosuke Takeshita
- Department of Cardiology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Saitama Medical Centre, Saitama Medical University, Kawagoe, Japan
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15
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Hwang YC, Kim SW, Hur KY, Cha BS, Kim IJ, Park TS, Baik SH, Yoon KH, Lee KW, Lee IK, Lee MK. Predictive Factors for Efficacy of AST-120 Treatment in Diabetic Nephropathy: a Prospective Single-Arm, Open-Label, Multi-Center Study. J Korean Med Sci 2019; 34:e117. [PMID: 31001934 PMCID: PMC6473095 DOI: 10.3346/jkms.2019.34.e117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Removal of uremic toxins such as indoxyl sulfate by AST-120 is known to improve renal function and delay the initiation of dialysis in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease. However, it is unclear whether the addition of AST-120 to conventional treatments is effective in delaying the progression of renal dysfunction in patients with diabetic nephropathy. METHODS A total of 100 patients with type 2 diabetes and renal dysfunction (serum creatinine levels ranging from 1.5 to 3.0 mg/dL) were recruited from eight centers in Korea and treated with AST-120 (6 g/day) for 24 weeks. The primary endpoint was improvement in renal function measured as the gradient of the reciprocal serum creatinine level (1/sCr) over time (i.e., the ratio of 1/sCr time slope for post- to pre-AST-120 therapy). A response was defined as a ratio change of the regression coefficient of 1/sCr ≤ 0.90. RESULTS Renal function improved in 80.3% of patients (61/76) after 24 weeks of AST-120 treatment. There were no differences between responder and non-responder groups in baseline characteristics except for diastolic blood pressure (73.5 ± 9.5 mmHg in the responder group vs. 79.3 ± 11.1 mmHg in the non-responder group; P = 0.046). Serum lipid peroxidation level decreased significantly in the responder group (from 2.25 ± 0.56 μol/L to 1.91 ± 0.72 μol/L; P = 0.002) but not in the non-responder group. CONCLUSION The addition of AST-120 to conventional treatments may delay the progression of renal dysfunction in diabetic nephropathy. The antioxidant effect of AST-120 might contribute to improvement in renal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Cheol Hwang
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, Kyung Hee University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Se Won Kim
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kyu Yeon Hur
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bong Soo Cha
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - In Joo Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Busan, Korea
| | - Tae Sun Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, Korea
| | - Sei Hyun Baik
- Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kun Ho Yoon
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kwan Woo Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ajou University Hospital, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - In Kyu Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - Moon Kyu Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
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16
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Lin W, Huang W, Ning S, Gong X, Ye Q, Wei D. Comparative transcriptome analyses revealed differential strategies of roots and leaves from methyl jasmonate treatment Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek and differentially expressed genes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0212863. [PMID: 30865659 PMCID: PMC6415880 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0212863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek (B. cusia) is an effective herb for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia and psoriasis in traditional Chinese medicine. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a well-known signaling phytohormone that triggers gene expression in secondary metabolism. Currently, MeJA-mediated biosynthesis of indigo and indirubin in B. cusia is not well understood. In this study, we analyzed the content of indigo and indirubin in leaf and root tissues of B. cusia with high-performance liquid chromatography and measured photosynthetic characteristics of leaves treated by MeJA using FluorCam6 Fluorometer and chlorophyll fluorescence using the portable photosynthesis system CIRAS-2. We performed de novo RNA-seq of B. cusia leaf and root transcriptional profiles to investigate differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in response to exogenous MeJA application. The amount of indigo in MeJA-treated leaves were higher than that in controled leaves (p = 0.004), and the amounts of indigo in treated roots was higher than that in controlled roots (p = 0.048); Chlorophyll fluorescence of leaves treated with MeJA were significantly decreased. Leaves treated with MeJA showed lower photosynthetic rate compared to the control in the absence of MeJA. Functional annotation of DEGs showed the DEGs related to growth and development processes were down-regulated in the treated leaves, while most of the unigenes involved in the defense response were up-regulated in treated roots. This coincided with the effects of MeJA on photosynthetic characteristics and chlorophyll fluorescence. The qRT-PCR results showed that MeJA appears to down-regulate the gene expression of tryptophan synthase β-subunits (trpA-β) in leaves but increased the gene expression of anthranilate synthase (trp 3) in roots responsible for increased indigo content. The results showed that MeJA suppressed leaf photosynthesis for B. cusia and this growth-defense trade-off may contribute to the improved adaptability of B. cusia in changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjin Lin
- School of Life science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Medical Measurement, Fujian Academy of Medical Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Wei Huang
- School of Life science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shuju Ning
- School of Crop science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Xiaogui Gong
- School of Life science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Qi Ye
- School of Life science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Daozhi Wei
- School of Life science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- * E-mail:
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17
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The systems biology of uric acid transporters: the role of remote sensing and signaling. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2019; 27:305-313. [PMID: 29847376 DOI: 10.1097/mnh.0000000000000427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Uric acid homeostasis in the body is mediated by a number of SLC and ABC transporters in the kidney and intestine, including several multispecific 'drug' transporters (e.g., OAT1, OAT3, and ABCG2). Optimization of uric acid levels can be viewed as a 'systems biology' problem. Here, we consider uric acid transporters from a systems physiology perspective using the framework of the 'Remote Sensing and Signaling Hypothesis.' This hypothesis explains how SLC and ABC 'drug' and other transporters mediate interorgan and interorganismal communication (e.g., gut microbiome and host) via small molecules (e.g., metabolites, antioxidants signaling molecules) through transporters expressed in tissues lining body fluid compartments (e.g., blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid). RECENT FINDINGS The list of uric acid transporters includes: SLC2A9, ABCG2, URAT1 (SLC22A12), OAT1 (SLC22A6), OAT3 (SLC22A8), OAT4 (SLC22A11), OAT10 (SLC22A13), NPT1 (SLC17A1), NPT4 (SLC17A3), MRP2 (ABCC2), MRP4 (ABCC4). Normally, SLC2A9, - along with URAT1, OAT1 and OAT3, - appear to be the main transporters regulating renal urate handling, while ABCG2 appears to regulate intestinal transport. In chronic kidney disease (CKD), intestinal ABCG2 becomes much more important, suggesting remote organ communication between the injured kidney and the intestine. SUMMARY The remote sensing and signaling hypothesis provides a useful systems-level framework for understanding the complex interplay of uric acid transporters expressed in different tissues involved in optimizing uric acid levels under normal and diseased (e.g., CKD, gut microflora dysbiosis) conditions.
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18
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Anraku M, Gebicki JM, Iohara D, Tomida H, Uekama K, Maruyama T, Hirayama F, Otagiri M. Antioxidant activities of chitosans and its derivatives in in vitro and in vivo studies. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 199:141-149. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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19
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Wu W, Bush KT, Nigam SK. Key Role for the Organic Anion Transporters, OAT1 and OAT3, in the in vivo Handling of Uremic Toxins and Solutes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4939. [PMID: 28694431 PMCID: PMC5504054 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04949-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro data indicates that the kidney proximal tubule (PT) transporters of uremic toxins and solutes (e.g., indoxyl sulfate, p-cresol sulfate, kynurenine, creatinine, urate) include two “drug” transporters of the organic anion transporter (OAT) family: OAT1 (SLC22A6, originally NKT) and OAT3 (SLC22A8). Here, we have examined new and prior metabolomics data from the Oat1KO and Oat3KO, as well as newly obtained metabolomics data from a “chemical double” knockout (Oat3KO plus probenecid). This gives a picture of the in vivo roles of OAT1 and OAT3 in the regulation of the uremic solutes and supports the centrality of these “drug” transporters in independently and synergistically regulating uremic metabolism. We demonstrate a key in vivo role for OAT1 and/or OAT3 in the handling of over 35 uremic toxins and solutes, including those derived from the gut microbiome (e.g., CMPF, phenylsulfate, indole-3-acetic acid). Although it is not clear whether trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) is directly transported, the Oat3KO had elevated plasma levels of TMAO, which is associated with cardiovascular morbidity in chronic kidney disease (CKD). As described in the Remote Sensing and Signaling (RSS) Hypothesis, many of these molecules are involved in interorgan and interorganismal communication, suggesting that uremia is, at least in part, a disorder of RSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wu
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Kevin T Bush
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Sanjay K Nigam
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA. .,Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA. .,Departments of Medicine, Pediatrics, and Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
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20
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Karu N, McKercher C, Nichols DS, Davies N, Shellie RA, Hilder EF, Jose MD. Tryptophan metabolism, its relation to inflammation and stress markers and association with psychological and cognitive functioning: Tasmanian Chronic Kidney Disease pilot study. BMC Nephrol 2016; 17:171. [PMID: 27832762 PMCID: PMC5103367 DOI: 10.1186/s12882-016-0387-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD) exhibit alterations in tryptophan metabolism, mainly via the kynurenine pathway, due to higher enzymatic activity induced mainly by inflammation. Indoles produced by gut-microflora are another group of tryptophan metabolites related to inflammation and conditions accompanying CKD. Disruptions in tryptophan metabolism have been associated with various neurological and psychological disorders. A high proportion of CKD patients self-report symptoms of depression and/or anxiety and decline in cognitive functioning. This pilot study examines tryptophan metabolism in CKD and explores associations with psychological and cognitive functioning. Methods Twenty-seven adults with CKD were part of 49 patients recruited to participate in a prospective pilot study, initially with an eGFR of 15–29 mL/min/1.73 m2. Only participants with viable blood samples and complete psychological/cognitive data at a 2-year follow-up were included in the reported cross-sectional study. Serum samples were analysed by Liquid Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry, for tryptophan, ten of its metabolites, the inflammation marker neopterin and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis marker cortisol. Results The tryptophan breakdown index (kynurenine / tryptophan) correlated with neopterin (Pearson R = 0.51 P = 0.006) but not with cortisol. Neopterin levels also correlated with indoxyl sulfate (R = 0.68, P < 0.0001) and 5 metabolites of tryptophan (R range 0.5–0.7, all P ≤ 0.01), which were all negatively related to eGFR (P < 0.05). Higher levels of kynurenic acid were associated with lower cognitive functioning (Spearman R = −0.39, P < 0.05), while indole-3 acetic acid (IAA) was correlated with anxiety and depression (R = 0.52 and P = 0.005, R = 0.39 and P < 0.05, respectively). Conclusions The results of this preliminary study suggest the involvement of inflammation in tryptophan breakdown via the kynurenine pathway, yet without sparing tryptophan metabolism through the 5-HT (serotonin) pathway in CKD patients. The multiple moderate associations between indole-3 acetic acid and psychological measures were a novel finding. The presented pilot data necessitate further exploration of these associations within a large prospective cohort to assess the broader significance of these findings. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12882-016-0387-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naama Karu
- ACROSS, School of Physical Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. .,Present address: The Metabolomics Innovation Centre (TMIC), Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E9, Canada.
| | - Charlotte McKercher
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - David S Nichols
- Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Noel Davies
- Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Robert A Shellie
- ACROSS, School of Physical Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.,Present address: Trajan Scientific and Medical, 7 Argent Place, Ringwood, Victoria, 3134, Australia
| | - Emily F Hilder
- ACROSS, School of Physical Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.,Present address: Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia
| | - Matthew D Jose
- School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.,Renal unit, Royal Hobart Hospital, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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21
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Ellis RJ, Small DM, Vesey DA, Johnson DW, Francis R, Vitetta L, Gobe GC, Morais C. Indoxyl sulphate and kidney disease: Causes, consequences and interventions. Nephrology (Carlton) 2016; 21:170-7. [PMID: 26239363 DOI: 10.1111/nep.12580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, chronic kidney disease (CKD), defined as reduced renal function (glomerular filtration rate (GFR) < 60 mL/min per 1.73 m(2) ) and/or evidence of kidney damage (typically manifested as albuminuria) for at least 3 months, has become one of the fastest-growing public health concerns worldwide. CKD is characterized by reduced clearance and increased serum accumulation of metabolic waste products (uremic retention solutes). At least 152 uremic retention solutes have been reported. This review focuses on indoxyl sulphate (IS), a protein-bound, tryptophan-derived metabolite that is generated by intestinal micro-organisms (microbiota). Animal studies have demonstrated an association between IS accumulation and increased fibrosis, and oxidative stress. This has been mirrored by in vitro studies, many of which report cytotoxic effects in kidney proximal tubular cells following IS exposure. Clinical studies have associated IS accumulation with deleterious effects, such as kidney functional decline and adverse cardiovascular events, although causality has not been conclusively established. The aims of this review are to: (i) establish factors associated with increased serum accumulation of IS; (ii) report effects of IS accumulation in clinical studies; (iii) critique the reported effects of IS in the kidney, when administered both in vivo and in vitro; and (iv) summarize both established and hypothetical therapeutic options for reducing serum IS or antagonizing its reported downstream effects in the kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Ellis
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David M Small
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David A Vesey
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Renal Medicine, University of Queensland at Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David W Johnson
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Renal Medicine, University of Queensland at Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ross Francis
- Department of Renal Medicine, University of Queensland at Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Luis Vitetta
- Sydney Medical School - Medical Sciences, Medlab, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Medlab Clinical Ltd., Medlab, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Glenda C Gobe
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christudas Morais
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research, Translational Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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22
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Ghosh SS, Righi S, Krieg R, Kang L, Carl D, Wang J, Massey HD, Sica DA, Gehr TWB, Ghosh S. High Fat High Cholesterol Diet (Western Diet) Aggravates Atherosclerosis, Hyperglycemia and Renal Failure in Nephrectomized LDL Receptor Knockout Mice: Role of Intestine Derived Lipopolysaccharide. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141109. [PMID: 26580567 PMCID: PMC4651339 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A high fat meal, frequently known as western diet (WD), exacerbates atherosclerosis and diabetes. Both these diseases are frequently associated with renal failure. Recent studies have shown that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) leaks into the circulation from the intestine in the setting of renal failure and after WD. However, it is not clear how renal function and associated disorders are affected by LPS. This study demonstrates that circulatory LPS exacerbates renal insufficiency, atherosclerosis and glucose intolerance. Renal insufficiency was induced by 2/3 nephrectomy in LDL receptor knockout mice. Nx animals were given normal diet (Nx) or WD (Nx+WD). The controls were sham operated animals on normal diet (control) and WD (WD). To verify if LPS plays a role in exaggerating renal insufficiency, polymyxin (PM), a known LPS antagonist, and curcumin (CU), a compound known to ameliorate chronic kidney disease (CKD), was given to Nx animals on western diet (Nx+WD+PM and Nx+WD+CU, respectively). Compared to control, all other groups displayed increased circulatory LPS. The Nx+WD cohort had the highest levels of LPS. Nx group had significant renal insufficiency and glucose intolerance but not atherosclerosis. WD had intense atherosclerosis and glucose intolerance but it did not show signs of renal insufficiency. Compared to other groups, Nx+WD had significantly higher cytokine expression, macrophage infiltration in the kidney, renal insufficiency, glucose intolerance and atherosclerosis. PM treatment blunted the expression of cytokines, deterioration of renal function and associated disorders, albeit not to the levels of Nx, and was significantly inferior to CU. PM is a non-absorbable antibiotic with LPS binding properties, hence its beneficial effect can only be due to its effect within the GI tract. We conclude that LPS may not cause renal insufficiency but can exaggerate kidney failure and associated disorders following renal insufficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhartha S. Ghosh
- Divisions of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Samuel Righi
- Divisions of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Richard Krieg
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Le Kang
- Department of Biostatistics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Daniel Carl
- Divisions of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Jing Wang
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - H. Davis Massey
- Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Domenic A. Sica
- Divisions of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Todd W. B. Gehr
- Divisions of Nephrology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Shobha Ghosh
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, United States of America
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23
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Shivanna S, Kolandaivelu K, Shashar M, Belghasim M, Al-Rabadi L, Balcells M, Zhang A, Weinberg J, Francis J, Pollastri MP, Edelman ER, Sherr DH, Chitalia VC. The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor is a Critical Regulator of Tissue Factor Stability and an Antithrombotic Target in Uremia. J Am Soc Nephrol 2015; 27:189-201. [PMID: 26019318 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2014121241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with CKD suffer high rates of thrombosis, particularly after endovascular interventions, yet few options are available to improve management and reduce thrombotic risk. We recently demonstrated that indoxyl sulfate (IS) is a potent CKD-specific prothrombotic metabolite that induces tissue factor (TF) in vascular smooth muscle cells (vSMCs), although the precise mechanism and treatment implications remain unclear. Because IS is an agonist of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), we first examined the relationship between IS levels and AHR-inducing activity in sera of patients with ESRD. IS levels correlated significantly with both vSMC AHR activity and TF activity. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that IS activates the AHR pathway in primary human aortic vSMCs, and further, that AHR interacts directly with and stabilizes functional TF. Antagonists directly targeting AHR enhanced TF ubiquitination and degradation and suppressed thrombosis in a postinterventional model of CKD and endovascular injury. Furthermore, AHR antagonists inhibited TF in a manner dependent on circulating IS levels. In conclusion, we demonstrated that IS regulates TF stability through AHR signaling and uncovered AHR as an antithrombotic target and AHR antagonists as a novel class of antithrombotics. Together, IS and AHR have potential as uremia-specific biomarkers and targets that may be leveraged as a promising theranostic platform to better manage the elevated thrombosis rates in patients with CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sowmya Shivanna
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Kumaran Kolandaivelu
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Moshe Shashar
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Mostafa Belghasim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Laith Al-Rabadi
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Mercedes Balcells
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Biological Engineering Department, Institut Químic de Sarrià, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anqi Zhang
- Metabolomics Core, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Janice Weinberg
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jean Francis
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Michael P Pollastri
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts; and
| | - Elazer R Edelman
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - David H Sherr
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Vipul C Chitalia
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts;
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24
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Rana I, Kompa AR, Skommer J, Wang BH, Lekawanvijit S, Kelly DJ, Krum H, Charchar FJ. Contribution of microRNA to pathological fibrosis in cardio-renal syndrome: impact of uremic toxins. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:3/4/e12371. [PMID: 25896982 PMCID: PMC4425975 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Progressive reduction in kidney function in patients following myocardial infarction (MI) is associated with an increase in circulating uremic toxins levels leading to increased extracellular matrix deposition. We have recently reported that treatment with uremic toxin adsorbent AST-120 in rats with MI inhibits serum levels of uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate (IS) and downregulates expression of cardiac profibrotic cytokine transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1). In this study, we examined the effect of uremic toxins post-MI on cardiac microRNA-21 and microRNA-29b expression, and also the regulation of target genes and matrix remodeling proteins involved in TGFβ1 and angiotensin II signaling pathways. Sixteen weeks after MI, cardiac tissues were assessed for pathological and molecular changes. The percentage area of cardiac fibrosis was 4.67 ± 0.17 in vehicle-treated MI, 2.9 ± 0.26 in sham, and 3.32 ± 0.38 in AST-120-treated MI, group of rats. Compared to sham group, we found a twofold increase in the cardiac expression of microRNA-21 and 0.5-fold decrease in microRNA-29b in heart tissue from vehicle-treated MI. Treatment with AST-120 lowered serum IS levels and attenuated both, cardiac fibrosis and changes in expression of these microRNAs observed after MI. We also found increased mRNA expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and angiotensin receptor 1a (Agtr1a) in cardiac tissue collected from MI rats. Treatment with AST-120 attenuated both, expression of ACE and Agtr1a mRNA. Exposure of rat cardiac fibroblasts to IS upregulated angiotensin II signaling and altered the expression of both microRNA-21 and microRNA-29b. These results collectively suggest a clear role of IS in altering microRNA-21 and microRNA-29b in MI heart, via a mechanism involving angiotensin signaling pathway, which leads to cardiac fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrajeetsinh Rana
- School of Health Sciences Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew R Kompa
- Centre of Cardiovascular Research and Education in Therapeutics Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne St. Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joanna Skommer
- School of Health Sciences Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bing H Wang
- Centre of Cardiovascular Research and Education in Therapeutics Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Suree Lekawanvijit
- Centre of Cardiovascular Research and Education in Therapeutics Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Darren J Kelly
- Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne St. Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
| | - Henry Krum
- Centre of Cardiovascular Research and Education in Therapeutics Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Fadi J Charchar
- School of Health Sciences Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia
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25
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Organ Failure Research, National Clinical Research Center of Kidney Disease, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China; and Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Youhua Liu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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26
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Leurs P, Machowska A, Lindholm B. Timing of Dialysis Initiation: When to Start? Which Treatment? J Ren Nutr 2015; 25:238-41. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jrn.2014.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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27
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Furuse SU, Ohse T, Jo-Watanabe A, Shigehisa A, Kawakami K, Matsuki T, Chonan O, Nangaku M. Galacto-oligosaccharides attenuate renal injury with microbiota modification. Physiol Rep 2014; 2:2/7/e12029. [PMID: 24994892 PMCID: PMC4187549 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tubulointerstitial injury is central to the progression of end‐stage renal disease. Recent studies have revealed that one of the most investigated uremic toxins, indoxyl sulfate (IS), caused tubulointerstitial injury through oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Because indole, the precursor of IS, is synthesized from dietary tryptophan by the gut microbiota, we hypothesized that the intervention targeting the gut microbiota in kidney disease with galacto‐oligosaccharides (GOS) would attenuate renal injury. After 2 weeks of GOS administration for 5/6 nephrectomized (Nx) or sham‐operated (Sham) rats, cecal indole and serum IS were measured, renal injury was evaluated, and the effects of GOS on the gut microbiota were examined using pyrosequencing methods. Cecal indole and serum IS were significantly decreased and renal injury was improved with decreased infiltrating macrophages in GOS‐treated Nx rats. The expression levels of ER stress markers and apoptosis were significantly increased in the Nx rats and decreased with GOS. The microbiota analysis indicated that GOS significantly increased three bacterial families and decreased five families in the Nx rats. In addition, the analysis also revealed that the bacterial family Clostridiaceae was significantly increased in the Nx rats compared with the Sham rats and decreased with GOS. Taken altogether, our data show that GOS decreased cecal indole and serum IS, attenuated renal injury, and modified the gut microbiota in the Nx rats, and that the gut microbiota were altered in kidney disease. GOS could be a novel therapeutic agent to protect against renal injury. GOS ameliorated the renal injury with lower indoxyl sulfate. GOS could be a novel therapeutic agent to protect against kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi U Furuse
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Division of Nephrology, Mitsui Memorial Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takamoto Ohse
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Airi Jo-Watanabe
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akira Shigehisa
- Yakult Central Institute for Microbiological Research, Kunitachi, Japan
| | - Koji Kawakami
- Yakult Central Institute for Microbiological Research, Kunitachi, Japan
| | - Takahiro Matsuki
- Yakult Central Institute for Microbiological Research, Kunitachi, Japan
| | - Osamu Chonan
- Yakult Central Institute for Microbiological Research, Kunitachi, Japan
| | - Masaomi Nangaku
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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28
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Yamazaki H, Tomoda F, Koike T, Kinuno H, Sugimori H, Inoue H, Bannai K, Sugano M, Nishijima F. Renal vascular structural properties and their alterations by removal of uraemic toxins in a rat model of chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2014; 41:238-45. [PMID: 24471839 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Revised: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
1. Renal vascular structural properties and their alterations by removal of uraemic toxins with AST-120, an oral adsorbent, were examined in subtotal nephrectomized rats. 2. Eight- or 9-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats received 3/4 nephrectomy (n = 18) and thereafter were fed 24.5% protein diet with (AST; n = 9) or without (AST-; n = 9) AST-120 (0.4 g/100 g bodyweight). Sham-operated rats (Sham; n = 9) received the diet without AST-120. At 21-22 weeks of age, flow-pressure (F-P) and pressure-glomerular filtration rate (P-GFR) relationships were determined for maximally vasodilated, perfused kidneys. 3. The gradient of F-P (minimal renal vascular resistance reflecting the overall luminal dimensions of pre- and post-glomerular vasculature) was lower in AST- than Sham rats. In contrast, the x-intercept (preglomerular : post-glomerular vascular resistance ratio) and gradient (glomerular filtration capacity) of P-GFR did not differ between the two groups. The vascular wall and lumen at the interlobular arteries were greater in AST- than Sham rats. 4. Although the vascular wall and lumen at the interlobular arteries were less in AST than in AST- rats, the gradient of F-P and the x-intercept of P-GFR did not differ between the two groups. In contrast, the glomerular filtration capacity was greater in AST than AST- rats. 5. In conclusion, the lumen of both pre- and post-glomerular resistance vessels increased and glomerular filtration capacity failed to increase in subtotal nephrectomized rats. Uraemic toxins could play an important role in the development of structural alterations in glomeruli rather than renal resistance vessels in chronic kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidenori Yamazaki
- The Second Department of Internal Medicine, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
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29
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Malyszko J. New therapeutic perspectives on protein-bound uremic toxins in chronic kidney disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2013; 18:109-13. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2014.860966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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