Validity of the Wingate anaerobic test for the evaluation of elite runners

Effects of six weeks of sub-plateau cold environment training on physical functioning and athletic ability in elite parallel giant slalom snowboard athletes

Background

Hypoxic and cold environments have been shown to improve the function and performance of athletes. However, it is unclear whether the combination of subalpine conditions and cold temperatures may have a greater effect. The present study aims to investigate the effects of 6 weeks of training in a sub-plateau cold environment on the physical function and athletic ability of elite parallel giant slalom snowboard athletes.

Methods

Nine elite athletes (four males and five females) participated in the study. The athletes underwent 6 weeks of high intensity ski-specific technical training (150 min/session, six times/week) and medium-intensity physical training (120 min/session, six times/week) prior to the Beijing 2021 Winter Olympic Games test competition. The physiological and biochemical parameters were collected from elbow venous blood samples after each 2-week session to assess the athletes' physical functional status. The athletes' athletic ability was evaluated by measuring their maximal oxygen uptake, Wingate 30 s anaerobic capacity, 30 m sprint run, and race performance. Measurements were taken before and after participating in the training program for six weeks. The repeated measure ANOVA was used to test the overall differences of blood physiological and biochemical indicators. For indicators with significant time main effects, post-hoc tests were conducted using the least significant difference (LSD) method. The paired-samples t-test was used to analyze changes in athletic ability indicators before and after training.

Results

(1) There was a significant overall time effect for red blood cells (RBC) and white blood cells (WBC) in males; there was also a significant effect on the percentage of lymphocytes (LY%), serum testosterone (T), and testosterone to cortisol ratio (T/C) in females (p < 0.001 - 0.015, η p 2 = 0 . 81 - 0 . 99 ). In addition, a significant time effect was also found for blood urea(BU), serum creatine kinase (CK), and serum cortisol levels in both male and female athletes (p = 0.001 - 0.029, η p 2 = 0 . 52 - 0 . 95 ). (2) BU and CK levels in males and LY% in females were all significantly higher at week 6 (p = 0.001 - 0.038), while WBC in males was significantly lower (p = 0.030). T and T/C were significantly lower in females at week 2 compared to pre-training (p = 0.007, 0.008, respectively), while cortisol (C) was significantly higher in males and females at weeks 2 and 4 (p _(male) = 0.015, 0.004, respectively; p _(female) = 0.024, 0.030, respectively). (3) There was a noticeable increase in relative maximal oxygen uptake, Wingate 30 s relative average anaerobic power, 30 m sprint run performance, and race performance in comparison to the pre-training measurements (p < 0.001 - 0.027).

Conclusions

Six weeks of sub-plateau cold environment training may improve physical functioning and promote aerobic and anaerobic capacity for parallel giant slalom snowboard athletes. Furthermore, male athletes had a greater improvement of physical functioning and athletic ability when trained in sub-plateau cold environments.

The Anaerobic Power Assessment in CrossFit® Athletes: An Agreement Study

Anaerobic power and capacity are considered determinants of performance and are usually assessed in athletes as a part of their physical capacities’ evaluation along the season. For that purpose, many field tests have been created. The main objective of this study was to analyze the agreement between four field tests and a laboratory test. Nineteen CrossFit^® (CF) athletes were recruited for this study (28.63 ± 6.62 years) who had been practicing CF for at least one year. Tests performed were: (1) Anaerobic Squat Test at 60% of bodyweight (AST60); (2) Anaerobic Squat Test at 70% of bodyweight (AST70); (3) Repeated Jump Test (RJT); (4) Assault Bike Test (ABT); and (5) Wingate Anaerobic Test on a cycle ergometer (WG). All tests consisted of 30 s of max effort. The differences among methods were tested using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and effect size. Agreement between methods was performed using Bland–Altman analysis. Analysis of agreement showed systematic bias in all field test PP values, which varied between −110.05 (AST60_PP—WG_PP) and 463.58 (ABT_PP—WG_PP), and a significant proportional error in ABT_PP by rank correlation (p < 0.001). Repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant differences among PP values (F(1.76,31.59) = 130.61, p =< 0.001). In conclusion, since to our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze the agreement between various methods to estimate anaerobic power in CF athletes. Apart from ABT, all tests showed good agreement and can be used interchangeably in CF athletes. Our results suggest that AST and RJT are good alternatives for measuring the anaerobic power in CF athletes when access to a laboratory is not possible.

Relationship between Biological, Training, and Physical Fitness Variables in the Expression of Performance in Non-Professional Runners

Sports performance is a multifactorial trait that can be associated with individual and environmental characteristics. In this study, the sample comprised 35 male runners, enrolled in the "InTrack" project. Information regarding variables related to runners' training was obtained via an online questionnaire, while anthropometric and body composition variables, as well as physical fitness components (muscular power, isometric strength, local muscular endurance, agility, and aerobic capacity) were measured, and a global physical fitness score (based on physical fitness components measured) was computed. The Weltman test (3200 m) was used to estimate runners' pace and their stride frequency. Linear regression was used, taking the running pace as dependent variable. The final model, comprising biological, physical fitness, spatiotemporal, and training variables, explained 86% of the running performance variance. Muscular power (β = -1.02; 95% CI = (-1.69)-(-0.35)), abdominal muscle endurance (β = -4.81; 95% CI = (-7.52)-(-2.10)), isometric strength (β = -422.95; 95% CI = (-689.65)-(-156.25)), global physical fitness (β = 27.14; 95% CI = 9.52-45.03), and stride frequency (β = -2.99; 95% CI = (-4.29)-(-1.69)) were significantly associated with performance, meaning that better results in tests and increasing the stride frequency leads to better performance. Individual characteristics and physical fitness components were demonstrated to be significant predictors for running performance.

Maximal Lactate Accumulation Rate in All-out Exercise Differs between Cycling and Running

This study aims to compare maximal lactate accumulation rate (V̇ La_max) and power output (P_max) between cycling and running in terms of reliability, differences between, and correlations among modalities. Eighteen competitive triathletes performed a 15-s all-out exercise test in cycling and a 100-m sprint test in running. Each test was performed twice and separated by one week. Exercise tests in cycling were performed on an ergometer whereas sprint tests in running were performed on an indoor track. Differences between trials and exercise modality were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. V̇ La_max (ICC=0.894, ICC=0.868) and P_max (ICC=0.907, ICC=0.965) attained 'good' to 'excellent' reliability in both cycling and running, respectively. V̇ La_max was higher in running (d=0.709, p=0.016) whereas P_max was lower in running (d=-0.862, p < 0.001). For V̇ La_max, limits of agreement between modalities ranged from -0.224 to +0.437 mmol·l^-1·s^-1. P_max correlated between modalities (r=0.811, p < 0.001), whereas no correlation was found in V̇ La_max (r=0.418, p=0.084). V̇ La_max is highly reliable in both modalities and higher in running compared to cycling. Since V̇ La_max does not correlate between cycling and running, it should be determined sport-specifically.

Physiological profile of adult male long-distance trail runners: variations according to competitive level (national or regional)

Objective

To describe and identify the importance of different indicators of the aerobic and anaerobic fitness of male ultra-trail runners according to their level of participation (regional or national).

Methods

Forty-four male ultra-trail runners were assessed (36.5±7.2 years). They were classified as regional (n=25) and national (n=19). Wingate test was used to assess the anaerobic pathway. A progressive incremental running test was performed and ventilatory thresholds registered, in parallel to heart rate and lactate concentration at the end of the protocol. Comparison between groups was performed using independent samples t-test.

Results

No significant differences were found between outputs derived from Wingate test. For aerobic fitness, while examining absolute values, differences were uniquely significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 3.78±0.32L.min^-1; ultra-trail national runners: 4.03±0.40L.min^-1 p<0.05). Meantime, when aerobic fitness was expressed per unit of body mass, differences were significant for the second ventilatory threshold (ultra-trail regional runners: 50.75±6.23mL.kg^-1.min^-1; ultra-trail national runners: 57.88±4.64mL.kg^-1.min^-1 p<0.05) and also maximum volume of oxygen (ultra-trail regional runners: 57.33±7.66mL.kg^-1.min^-1; ultra-trail national runners: 63.39±4.26mL.kg^-1.min^-1 p<0.05).

Conclusion

This study emphasized the importance of expressing physiological variables derived from running protocols per unit of body mass. Also, the second ventilatory threshold appears to be the best and the only aerobic fitness variable to distinguish between trail runners according to competitive level. Maximal oxygen uptake seems of relative interest to distinguish between long distance runners according to competitive level.

Physiological profile of adult male long-distance trail runners: variations according to competitive level (national or regional)

Objective

To assess the health profile of community-dwelling older adults, according to sex, assisted by the Elderly Caregiver Program of the City of São Paulo.

Methods

Secondary data of 535 older adults, assisted by ten Elderly Caregiver Program teams from the southern region of São Paulo, were collected from medical records and the Multidimensional Evaluation of Older People in Primary Care, after verifying the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study and obtaining subjects’ consent.

Results

Older adults assisted by this program were predominantly female (77.6%), mean age of 76.2±8.0 years. They had negative self-rated health (67.8%), difficulties in instrumental activities of daily living (68.4%) and signs of mood changes (60.3%). A high prevalence of older adults with vision problems (58.8%), polypharmacy (58.1%), memory-related complaints (55.8%) and multiple morbidities (50.6%) were observed. The prevalence of multiple morbidities, polypharmacy, cognitive impairment and signs of mood changes were higher in women. On the other hand, men reported more hearing problems than women.

Conclusion

The poorer health conditions of the older adults in this study, evidenced by a high prevalence of subjects with negative self-rated health, difficulties in instrumental activities of daily living, multiple morbidities, polypharmacy and other complaints (sensorial changes, depressive and cognitive symptoms), reinforce the importance of this program as a long-term care policy and as a way to ensure these older adults can continue living in their communities.

Repeated Linear and Quadrangular Sprint as a Function of Anaerobic Power

Almansba, R, Boucher, VG, Parent, AA, and Comtois, AS. Repeated linear and quadrangular sprint as a function of anaerobic power. J Strength Cond Res 33(8): 2177-2184, 2019-This investigation aims to study in U17 soccer players the relationships among performance indices of linear or quadrangular (square shape) repeated-sprint bouts (RSBs) and leg muscular power measured with the Wingate test and the squat jump. Seventeen athletes were recruited. Participants were 16 ± 0.35 years old and had a body mass of 66.5 ± 8.69 kg and a height of 175 ± 0.05 cm. All participants performed linear or quadrangular RSBs, the Wingate test, and a vertical jump test. The mean fast linear sprint time was strongly correlated (p < 0.01) with the force and power measured with the vertical jump test (r = -0.68 and -0.75, respectively), whereas the mean linear RSB was weakly correlated with the peak power and fatigue index measured by the Wingate test (r = -0.54 and -0.56, respectively). There was a correlation between quadrangular RSBs performance indices and both Wingate and vertical jump parameters. In addition, there were no correlations (p > 0.05) between indices of the linear RSBs (decrement index, average, and fastest times) and quadrangular RSBs. Moreover, physiological and perceptual responses were significantly higher (p < 0.01) with quadrangular RSBs compared with linear RSBs. These results indicate that the Wingate test and the vertical jump test can be used as a substitute for repeated-sprint performance time. Finally, however, the repeated sprints with or without direction changes are 2 different motor abilities that should be trained independently of one another.

Force-velocity characteristics and maximal anaerobic power in male recreational marathon runners

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship of force-velocity (F-v) characteristics with age and race time in marathon runners. One hundred thirty-five male marathon runners (age 44.2 ± 8.8 years, height 176 ± 6 cm, body mass 24.7 ± 2.6 kg.m^-2 and personal record 4:02 ± 0:45 h:min), separated into eight age groups (<30, 30-35, ., 55-60, >60 years), performed an F-v test on a cycle ergometer consisted of four 7s sprints. The older age groups had the lowest scores in maximal pedalling velocity (v₀; p < 0.001, η_p² = 0.244), relative (rPmax; p = 0.001, η_p² = 0.176) and absolute maximal power (Pmax; p = 0.009, η_p² = 0.135), whereas no difference in maximal force (F₀; p = 0.558, η_p² = 0.044) was shown. Race time correlated moderately with F₀ (r = 0.31, p < 0.001) and Pmax (r = 0.30, p = 0.001). The small magnitude of age-related differences in anaerobic power among most age groups indicated that humans without muscle strength/power training might maintain anaerobic power indices till their sixties.

Force-Velocity Characteristics, Muscle Strength, and Flexibility in Female Recreational Marathon Runners

Physical fitness components that relate with performance in marathon running, e.g., aerobic capacity and body composition, have been studied extensively. On the other hand, data on components of the health-related physical fitness, such as flexibility and muscle strength, were missing in this sport. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to profile force-velocity (F-v) characteristics, muscle strength and flexibility in female recreational marathon runners and to examine their relationship with age, race time and anthropometric characteristics (body fat percentage, fat-free mass - FFM, and total thigh muscle cross-sectional area - CSA). Thirty three female marathon runners (age 40.0 ± 8.9 years, body fat percentage 19.5 ± 4.6% and personal record 4:34 ± 0:39 h:min), separated into three age groups (<35, 35-45 and >45 years) and three performance groups (race time <4:15 h:min, 4:15-4:45 h:min and >4:45 h:min), performed sit-and-reach test (SAR), isometric muscle strength tests, squat jump, countermovement jump and F-v test on a cycle ergometer. The main findings of the present study were that (i) participants had moderate scores of body composition and physical fitness considering norms of the general population, (ii) the <35 age group had better jumping ability than 35-45 and >45 age group, and the older age group had lower F₀, Pmax and rPmax than their younger counterparts, (iii) the slowest performance group scored the highest in SAR, and (iv) isometric strength, F₀ and Pmax correlated largely with body mass and FFM. Considering the lack of existing data on anaerobic power and neuromuscular fitness of female marathon runners, the findings reported in this study would be useful for strength and conditioning trainers to monitor the training of their athletes. Even if these parameters were not related to race time, they should be monitored regularly as they were either component of health-related physical fitness (muscle strength and flexibility) or could help runners (anaerobic power) under specific circumstances such as ascends during a race.