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Vargas-Molina S, García-Sillero M, Bonilla DA, Petro JL, García-Romero J, Benítez-Porres J. The effect of the ketogenic diet on resistance training load management: a repeated-measures clinical trial in trained participants. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2024; 21:2306308. [PMID: 38285913 PMCID: PMC10826788 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2024.2306308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effect of low-carbohydrate high-fat dietary manipulation, such as the ketogenic diet (KD), on muscle strength assessment in resistance-training (RT) participants has focused on the one-repetition maximum test (1-RM). However, a pre-specified 1-RM value during an exercise training program disregards several confounding factors (i.e. sleep, diet, and training-induced fatigue) that affect the exerciser's "true" load and daily preparedness. We aimed to evaluate the effect of a 6-week RT program on load control-related variables in trained subjects following a KD intervention. METHODS Fourteen resistance-trained individuals (3F, 11 M; 30.1 [6.2] years; 174.2 [7.6] cm; 75.7 [10.8] kg; BMI 24.8 [2.1] kg·m-2) completed this single-arm repeated-measures clinical trial. Load management variables included volume load, number of repetitions, perceived exertion (RPE), movement velocity loss, and exertion index. These primary outcomes were assessed weekly before, during, and at the end of a 6-week RT program that included traditional RT exercises (bench press, femoral lying down, lat pulldown, leg extension, and back squat). RESULTS There was a significant difference in RPE between weeks (p = 0.015, W = 0.19) with a slight trend in decreasing RPE. We found differences in the volume load per week (p < 0.001; W = 0.73 and p < 0.001, W = 0.81, respectively), with an increase in the last weeks. In the control of the load based on movement velocity, we did not find significant differences between weeks (p = 0.591, W = 0.06), although significant differences were found in the effort index (p = 0.026, W = 0.17). CONCLUSIONS A KD diet in recreational strength participants does not appear to lead to performance losses during a RT program aimed at improving body composition. However, the lack of adherence and familiarity with the ketogenic diet must be considered specially during first weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Vargas-Molina
- University of Málaga, Physical education and sport area, Faculty of Medicine, Málaga, Spain
- Physical education and sport, EADE-University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Málaga, Spain
| | - Manuel García-Sillero
- Physical education and sport, EADE-University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Málaga, Spain
| | - Diego A. Bonilla
- Dynamical Business & Science Society – DBSS International SAS, Research Division, Bogotá, Colombia
- Universidad de Córdoba, Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences (GICAFS), Montería, Colombia
| | - Jorge L. Petro
- Dynamical Business & Science Society – DBSS International SAS, Research Division, Bogotá, Colombia
- Universidad de Córdoba, Research Group in Physical Activity, Sports and Health Sciences (GICAFS), Montería, Colombia
| | - Jerónimo García-Romero
- University of Málaga, Physical education and sport area, Faculty of Medicine, Málaga, Spain
| | - Javier Benítez-Porres
- University of Málaga, Physical education and sport area, Faculty of Medicine, Málaga, Spain
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Vargas-Molina S, Murri M, Gonzalez-Jimenez A, Gómez-Urquiza JL, Benítez-Porres J. Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Strength Performance in Trained Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2024; 16:2200. [PMID: 39064644 PMCID: PMC11279805 DOI: 10.3390/nu16142200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Ketogenic diets (KDs) are an alternative to improve strength performance and body composition in resistance training participants. The objective of this review and meta-analysis is to verify whether a ketogenic diet produces an increase in the strength of resistance-trained participants. We have evaluated the effect of the ketogenic diet in conjunction with resistance training on the strength levels in trained participants. Boolean algorithms from various databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were used. Meta-analyses were carried out, one on the 1-RM squat (SQ), with 106 trained participants or athletes, and another on the 1-RM on the bench press (BP), evaluating 119 participants. We did not find significant differences between the groups in the variables of SQ or BP, although the size of the effect was slightly higher in the ketogenic group. Conclusions: KDs do not appear to impair 1-RM performance; however, this test does not appear to be the most optimal tool for assessing hypertrophy-based strength session performance in resistance-trained participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Vargas-Molina
- Physical Education and Sports Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain;
- Research Division, Dynamical Business and Science Society—DBSS International SAS, Bogotá 110311, Colombia
| | - Mora Murri
- Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga, IBIMA-Plataforma BIONAND, 29590 Málaga, Spain;
- Endocrinology and Nutrition Clinical Management Unit, Virgen de la Victoria University Hospital, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de la Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 29016 Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Gonzalez-Jimenez
- Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga, IBIMA-Plataforma BIONAND, 29590 Málaga, Spain;
| | - José Luis Gómez-Urquiza
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 51005 Ceuta, Spain;
| | - Javier Benítez-Porres
- Physical Education and Sports Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga, IBIMA-Plataforma BIONAND, 29590 Málaga, Spain;
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Enes A, DE Souza EO, Souza-Junior TP. Effects of Different Weekly Set Progressions on Muscular Adaptations in Trained Males: Is There a Dose-Response Effect? Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:553-563. [PMID: 37796222 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the effect of progressively adding sets for the lower limb every 2 wk versus performing a constant set volume in resistance-trained males. METHODS Thirty-one resistance-trained males (age = 24.4 ± 2.9 yr, height = 175.5 ± 6.5 cm, body mass = 80.1 ± 9.4 kg, body fat = 14.4% ± 3.1%, resistance training [RT] experience = 5.1 ± 2.2 yr; one-repetition maximum [1RM] barbell back squat: body mass ratio = 1.7 ± 0.1 a.u.) were randomly allocated into a constant group (CG, n = 10), a four-set progression group (4SG, n = 10) or a six-set progression group (6SG, n = 11). After a 2-wk washout period and another 2-wk familiarization period, participants performed a lower-limb training program twice a week for 12 wk. Maximum dynamic strength (1RM) in the barbell back squat, vastus lateralis cross-sectional area, and the sum of lateral thigh muscle thickness at 30%, 50%, and 70% of the femur length were assessed at baseline and after the 12-wk training program. RESULTS Regarding 1RM, multiple comparisons revealed that 6SG elicited higher muscle strength gains than 4SG ( P = 0.002) and CG ( P < 0.0001), and 4SG had greater improvements than CG ( P = 0.023). Cross-sectional area and sum of lateral thigh muscle thickness showed no between-group differences ( P = 0.067 and P = 0.076, respectively). However, an inspection of 95% confidence intervals suggests a potential dose-response relationship, with results appearing to plateau in the higher volume conditions. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that progressively adding four or six sets per week every 2 wk elicited greater lower-limb strength in resistance-trained individuals over a 12-wk training period. Although our findings indicate a possible small benefit for higher volume conditions regarding hypertrophic adaptations in this population, the limited certainty of our findings warrants caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysson Enes
- Metabolism, Nutrition and Strength Training Research Group-Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, BRAZIL
| | - Eduardo O DE Souza
- Department of Health Sciences and Human Performance, The University of Tampa, Tampa, FL
| | - Tácito P Souza-Junior
- Metabolism, Nutrition and Strength Training Research Group-Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, BRAZIL
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Bell L, Strafford BW, Coleman M, Androulakis Korakakis P, Nolan D. Integrating Deloading into Strength and Physique Sports Training Programmes: An International Delphi Consensus Approach. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2023; 9:87. [PMID: 37730925 PMCID: PMC10511399 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-023-00633-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Deloading is a ubiquitous yet under-researched strategy within strength and physique training. How deloading should be integrated into the training programme to elicit optimal training outcomes is unknown. To aid its potential integration, this study established consensus around design principles for integrating deloading in strength and physique training programmes using expert opinion and practical experience. METHODS Expert strength and physique coaches were invited to an online Delphi consisting of 3 rounds. Thirty-four coaches completed the first round, 29 completed the second round, and 21 completed the third round of a Delphi questionnaire. In the first round, coaches answered 15 open-ended questions from four categories: 1: General Perceptions of Deloading; 2: Potential Applications of Deloading; 3: Designing and Implementing Deloading; and 4: Creating an Inclusive Deloading Training Environment. First-round responses were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, resulting in 138 statements organized into four domains. In the second and third rounds, coaches rated each statement using a four-point Likert scale, and collective agreement or disagreement was calculated. RESULTS Stability of consensus was achieved across specific aspects of the four categories. Findings from the final round were used to develop the design principles, which reflect the consensus achieved. CONCLUSIONS This study develops consensus on design principles for integrating deloading into strength and physique sports training programmes. A consensus definition is proposed: "Deloading is a period of reduced training stress designed to mitigate physiological and psychological fatigue, promote recovery, and enhance preparedness for subsequent training." These findings contribute novel knowledge that might advance the current understanding of deloading in strength and physique sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Bell
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP, UK.
| | - Ben William Strafford
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S10 2BP, UK
| | - Max Coleman
- Department of Exercise Science and Recreation, Applied Muscle Development Laboratory, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA
| | | | - David Nolan
- School of Health & Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
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Bell L, Nolan D, Immonen V, Helms E, Dallamore J, Wolf M, Androulakis Korakakis P. "You can't shoot another bullet until you've reloaded the gun": Coaches' perceptions, practices and experiences of deloading in strength and physique sports. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:1073223. [PMID: 36619355 PMCID: PMC9811819 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1073223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Deloading refers to a purposeful reduction in training demand with the intention of enhancing preparedness for successive training cycles. Whilst deloading is a common training practice in strength and physique sports, little is known about how the necessary reduction in training demand should be accomplished. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine current deloading practices in competitive strength and physique sports. Eighteen strength and physique coaches from a range of sports (weightlifting, powerlifting, and bodybuilding) participated in semi-structured interviews to discuss their experiences of deloading. The mean duration of coaching experience at ≥ national standard was 10.9 (SD = 3.9) years. Qualitative content analysis identified Three categories: definitions, rationale, and application. Participants conceptualised deloading as a periodic, intentional cycle of reduced training demand designed to facilitate fatigue management, improve recovery, and assist in overall training progression and readiness. There was no single method of deloading; instead, a reduction in training volume (achieved through a reduction in repetitions per set and number of sets per training session) and intensity of effort (increased proximity to failure and/or reduction in relative load) were the most adapted training variables, along with alterations in exercise selection and configuration. Deloading was typically prescribed for a duration of 5 to 7 days and programmed every 4 to 6 weeks, although periodicity was highly variable. Additional findings highlight the underrepresentation of deloading in the published literature, including a lack of a clear operational definition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Bell
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom,Correspondence: Lee Bell
| | - David Nolan
- School of Health & Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland,Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, Westmeath, Ireland
| | - Velu Immonen
- Department of Sports and Exercise, Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences, Vierumäki, Finland, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Helms
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jake Dallamore
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Milo Wolf
- Centre for Health, Exercise and Sport Science, Solent University, Southampton, United Kingdom
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Vargas-Molina S, Gómez-Urquiza JL, García-Romero J, Benítez-Porres J. Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Muscle Hypertrophy in Resistance-Trained Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph191912629. [PMID: 36231929 PMCID: PMC9564904 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191912629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Reviews focused on the ketogenic diet (KD) based on the increase in fat-free mass (FFM) have been carried out with pathological populations or, failing that, without population differentiation. The aim of this review and meta-analysis was to verify whether a ketogenic diet without programmed energy restriction generates increases in fat-free mass (FFM) in resistance-trained participants. We evaluated the effect of the ketogenic diet, in conjunction with resistance training, on fat-free mass in trained participants. Boolean algorithms from various databases (PubMed, Scopus. and Web of Science) were used, and a total of five studies were located that related to both ketogenic diets and resistance-trained participants. In all, 111 athletes or resistance-trained participants (87 male and 24 female) were evaluated in the studies analyzed. We found no significant differences between groups in the FFM variables, and more research is needed to perform studies with similar ketogenic diets and control diet interventions. Ketogenic diets, taking into account the possible side effects, can be an alternative for increasing muscle mass as long as energy surplus is generated; however, their application for eight weeks or more without interruption does not seem to be the best option due to the satiety and lack of adherence generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Vargas-Molina
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, EADE-University of Wales Trinity Saint David, 29018 Málaga, Spain
- Physical Education and Sports Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
| | - José L. Gómez-Urquiza
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Jerónimo García-Romero
- Physical Education and Sports Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
| | - Javier Benítez-Porres
- Physical Education and Sports Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Roth C, Schoenfeld BJ, Behringer M. Lean mass sparing in resistance-trained athletes during caloric restriction: the role of resistance training volume. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1129-1151. [PMID: 35146569 PMCID: PMC9012799 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04896-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many sports employ caloric restriction (CR) to reduce athletes’ body mass. During these phases, resistance training (RT) volume is often reduced to accommodate recovery demands. Since RT volume is a well-known anabolic stimulus, this review investigates whether a higher training volume helps to spare lean mass during CR. A total of 15 studies met inclusion criteria. The extracted data allowed calculation of total tonnage lifted (repetitions × sets × intensity load) or weekly sets per muscle group for only 4 of the 15 studies, with RT volume being highly dependent on the examined muscle group as well as weekly training frequency per muscle group. Studies involving high RT volume programs (≥ 10 weekly sets per muscle group) revealed low-to-no (mostly female) lean mass loss. Additionally, studies increasing RT volume during CR over time appeared to demonstrate no-to-low lean mass loss when compared to studies reducing RT volume. Since data regarding RT variables applied were incomplete in most of the included studies, evidence is insufficient to conclude that a higher RT volume is better suited to spare lean mass during CR, although data seem to favor higher volumes in female athletes during CR. Moreover, the data appear to suggest that increasing RT volume during CR over time might be more effective in ameliorating CR-induced atrophy in both male and female resistance-trained athletes when compared to studies reducing RT volume. The effects of CR on lean mass sparing seem to be mediated by training experience, pre-diet volume, and energy deficit, with, on average, women tending to spare more lean mass than men. Potential explanatory mechanisms for enhanced lean mass sparing include a preserved endocrine milieu as well as heightened anabolic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Roth
- Department of Sports Medicine and Exercise Physiology, Institute of Sport Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Ginnheimer Landstrasse 39, 60487, Frankfurt/Main, Germany.
| | - B J Schoenfeld
- Department of Health Sciences, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - M Behringer
- Department of Sports Medicine and Exercise Physiology, Institute of Sport Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Ginnheimer Landstrasse 39, 60487, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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Kataoka R, Vasenina E, Hammert WB, Ibrahim AH, Dankel SJ, Buckner SL. Is there Evidence for the Suggestion that Fatigue Accumulates Following Resistance Exercise? Sports Med 2021; 52:25-36. [PMID: 34613589 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01572-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that improper post-exercise recovery or improper sequence of training may result in an 'accumulation' of fatigue. Despite this suggestion, there is a lack of clarity regarding which physiological mechanisms may be proposed to contribute to fatigue accumulation. The present paper explores the time course of the changes in various fatigue-related measures in order to understand how they may accumulate or lessen over time following an exercise bout or in the context of an exercise program. Regarding peripheral fatigue, the depletion of energy substrates and accumulation of metabolic byproducts has been demonstrated to occur following an acute bout of resistance training; however, peripheral accumulation and depletion appear unlikely candidates to accumulate over time. A number of mechanisms may contribute to the development of central fatigue, postulating the need for prolonged periods of recovery; however, a time course is difficult to determine and is dependent on which measurement is examined. In addition, it has not been demonstrated that central fatigue measures accumulate over time. A potential candidate that may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue is muscle damage, which shares similar characteristics (i.e., prolonged strength loss). Due to the delayed appearance of muscle damage, it may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue. Overall, evidence for the presence of fatigue accumulation with resistance training is equivocal, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that fatigue accumulates. Considerable work remains as to whether fatigue can accumulate over time. Future studies are warranted to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the concept of fatigue accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Kataoka
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. PED 214, Tampa, FL, 33620-8600, USA
| | - Ecaterina Vasenina
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. PED 214, Tampa, FL, 33620-8600, USA
| | - William B Hammert
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. PED 214, Tampa, FL, 33620-8600, USA
| | - Adam H Ibrahim
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. PED 214, Tampa, FL, 33620-8600, USA
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Science, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, USA
| | - Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. PED 214, Tampa, FL, 33620-8600, USA.
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Minor B, Helms E, Schepis J. RE: Mesocycle Progression in Hypertrophy: Volume Versus Intensity. Strength Cond J 2020. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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