Nickel-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling of Aryl Halides with Alkyl Halides: Ethyl 4-(4-(4-methylphenylsulfonamido)-phenyl)butanoate

Digitization and validation of a chemical synthesis literature database in the ChemPU

Despite huge potential, automation of synthetic chemistry has only made incremental progress over the past few decades. We present an automatically executable chemical reaction database of 100 molecules representative of the range of reactions found in contemporary organic synthesis. These reactions include transition metal–catalyzed coupling reactions, heterocycle formations, functional group interconversions, and multicomponent reactions. The chemical reaction codes or χDLs for the reactions have been stored in a database for version control, validation, collaboration, and data mining. Of these syntheses, more than 50 entries from the database have been downloaded and robotically run in seven modular ChemPU’s with yields and purities comparable to those achieved by an expert chemist. We also demonstrate the automatic purification of a range of compounds using a chromatography module seamlessly coupled to the platform and programmed with the same language.

ChemBead Enabled High-Throughput Cross-Electrophile Coupling Reveals a New Complementary Ligand

High-throughput experimentation (HTE) methods are central to modern medicinal chemistry. While many HTE approaches to C-N and Csp2 -Csp2 bonds are available, options for Csp2 -Csp3 bonds are limited. We report here how the adaptation of nickel-catalyzed cross-electrophile coupling of aryl bromides with alkyl halides to HTE is enabled by AbbVie ChemBeads technology. By using this approach, we were able to quickly map out the reactivity space at a global level with a challenging array of 3×222 micromolar reactions. The observed hit rate (56 %) is competitive with other often-used HTE reactions and the results are scalable. A key to this level of success was the finding that bipyridine 6-carboxamidine (BpyCam), a ligand that had not previously been shown to be optimal in any reaction, is as general as the best-known ligands with complementary reactivity. Such "cryptic" catalysts may be common and modern HTE methods should facilitate the process of finding these catalysts.

Cross-Coupling and Related Reactions: Connecting Past Success to the Development of New Reactions for the Future

Cross-coupling reactions, which were discovered almost 50 years ago, are widely used in both industry and academia. Even though cross-coupling reactions now represent mature technology, there is still a significant amount of research in this area that aims to improve the scope of these reactions, develop more efficient catalysts, and make reactions more practical. In this tutorial, a brief background to cross-coupling reactions is provided, and then the major advances in cross-coupling research over the last 20 years are described. These include the development of improved ligands and precatalysts for cross-coupling and the extension of cross-coupling reactions to a much wider range of electrophiles. For example, cross-coupling reactions are now common with sp3-hybridized electrophiles as well as ester, amide, ether, and aziridine substrates. For many of these more modern substrates, traditional palladium-based catalysts are less efficient than systems based on first-row transition metals such as nickel. Conventional cross-coupling reactions have also inspired the development of a range of related reactions, such as cross-electrophile and decarboxylative couplings as well as couplings based on metallaphotoredox chemistry. The development of these new reactions is probably at the same stage as traditional cross-coupling reactions 30 years ago, and this tutorial highlights how many of the same strategies used to improve cross-coupling reactions may also be applicable to making the new reactions more practical.

Cross-Electrophile Coupling of Vinyl Halides with Alkyl Halides

An improved method for the reductive coupling of aryl and vinyl bromides with alkyl halides that gave high yields for a variety of substrates at room temperature with a low (2.5 to 0.5 mol %) catalyst loading is presented. Under the optimized conditions, difficult substrates, such as unhindered alkenyl bromides, can be coupled to give the desired olefins with minimal diene formation and good stereoretention. These improved conditions also worked well for aryl bromides. For example, a gram-scale reaction was demonstrated with 0.5 mol % catalyst loading, whereas reactions at 10 mol % catalyst loading completed in as little as 20 minutes. Finally, a low-cost single-component pre-catalyst, (bpy)NiI2 (bpy=2,2'-bipyridine) that is both air- and moisture-stable over a period of months was introduced.

Decarboxylative Cross-Electrophile Coupling of N-Hydroxyphthalimide Esters with Aryl Iodides

A new method for the decarboxylative coupling of alkyl N-hydroxyphthalimide esters (NHP esters) with aryl iodides is presented. In contrast to previous studies that form alkyl radicals from carboxylic acid derivatives, no photocatalyst, light, or arylmetal reagent is needed, only nickel and a reducing agent (Zn). Methyl, primary, and secondary alkyl groups can all be coupled in good yield (77% ave yield). One coupling with an acid chloride is also presented. Stoichiometric reactions of (dtbbpy)Ni(2-tolyl)I with an NHP ester show for the first time that arylnickel(II) complexes can directly react with NHP esters to form alkylated arenes.

Methods and Mechanisms for Cross-Electrophile Coupling of Csp(2) Halides with Alkyl Electrophiles

Cross-electrophile coupling, the cross-coupling of two different electrophiles, avoids the need for preformed carbon nucleophiles, but development of general methods has lagged behind cross-coupling and C–H functionalization. A central reason for this slow development is the challenge of selectively coupling two substrates that are alike in reactivity. This Account describes the discovery of generally cross-selective reactions of aryl halides and acyl halides with alkyl halides, the mechanistic studies that illuminated the underlying principles of these reactions, and the use of these fundamental principles in the rational design of new cross-electrophile coupling reactions.

Although the coupling of two different electrophiles under reducing conditions often leads primarily to symmetric dimers, the subtle differences in reactivity of aryl halides and alkyl halides with nickel catalysts allowed for generally cross-selective coupling reactions. These conditions could also be extended to the coupling of acyl halides with alkyl halides. These reactions are exceptionally functional group tolerant and can be assembled on the benchtop.

A combination of stoichiometric and catalytic studies on the mechanism of these reactions revealed an unusual radical-chain mechanism and suggests that selectivity arises from (1) the preference of nickel(0) for oxidative addition to aryl halides and acyl halides over alkyl halides and (2) the greater propensity of alkyl halides to form free radicals. Bipyridine-ligated arylnickel intermediates react with alkyl radicals to efficiently form, after reductive elimination, new C–C bonds. Finally, the resulting nickel(I) species is proposed to regenerate an alkyl radical to carry the chain.

Examples of new reactions designed using these principles include carbonylative coupling of aryl halides with alkyl halides to form ketones, arylation of epoxides to form β-aryl alcohols, and coupling of benzyl sulfonate esters with aryl halides to form diarylmethanes. Arylnickel(II) intermediates can insert carbon monoxide to form acylnickel(II) intermediates that react with alkyl halides to form ketones, demonstrating the connection between the mechanisms of reactions of aryl halides and acid chlorides with alkyl halides. The low reactivity of epoxides with nickel can be overcome by the use of either titanium or iodide cocatalysis to facilitate radical generation and this can also be extended to enantioselective arylation of meso-epoxides. The high reactivity of benzyl bromide with nickel, which leads to the formation of bibenzyl in attempted reactions with bromobenzene, can be overcome by using a benzyl mesylate along with cobalt phthalocyanine cocatalysis to convert the mesylate into an alkyl radical.

Stoichiometric Reactions of Acylnickel(II) Complexes with Electrophiles and the Catalytic Synthesis of Ketones

Acylnickel(II) complexes feature prominently in cross-electrophile coupling (XEC) reactions that form ketones, yet their reactivity has not been systematically investigated. We present here our studies on the reactivity of acylnickel(II) complexes with a series of carbon electrophiles. Bromobenzene, α-chloroethylbenzene, bromooctane, and iodooctane were reacted with (dtbbpy)Ni^II(C(O)C₅H₁₁)(Br) (1b) and (dtbbpy)Ni^II(C(O)tolyl)(Br) (1c) to form a variety of organic products. While reactions with bromobenzene formed complex mixtures of ketones, reactions with α-chloroethylbenzene were highly selective for the cross-ketone product. Reactions with iodooctane and bromooctane also produced the cross-ketone product, but in intermediate yield and selectivity. In most cases the presence or absence of a chemical reductant (zinc) had only a small effect on the selectivity of the reaction. The coupling of 1c with iodooctane (60% yield) was translated into a catalytic reaction, the carbonylative coupling of bromoarenes with primary bromoalkanes (six examples, 60% average yield).

Cross-electrophile coupling: principles of reactivity and selectivity

A critical overview of the catalytic joining of two different electrophiles, cross-electrophile coupling (XEC), is presented with an emphasis on the central challenge of cross-selectivity. Recent synthetic advances and mechanistic studies have shed light on four possible methods for overcoming this challenge: (1) employing an excess of one reagent; (2) electronic differentiation of starting materials; (3) catalyst-substrate steric matching; and (4) radical chain processes. Each method is described using examples from the recent literature.

Nickel-catalyzed cross-electrophile coupling of 2-chloropyridines with alkyl bromides

The synthesis of 2-alkylated pyridines by the nickel-catalyzed cross-coupling of two different electrophiles, 2-chloropyridines with alkyl bromides, is described. Compared to our previously published conditions for aryl halides, this method uses the different, more rigid bathophenanthroline ligand and is conducted at high concentration in DMF solvent. The method displays promising functional group compatibility and the conditions are orthogonal to the Stille coupling.

Nickel-catalyzed regiodivergent opening of epoxides with aryl halides: co-catalysis controls regioselectivity

Epoxides are versatile intermediates in organic synthesis, but have rarely been employed in cross-coupling reactions. We report that bipyridine-ligated nickel can mediate the addition of functionalized aryl halides, a vinyl halide, and a vinyl triflate to epoxides under reducing conditions. For terminal epoxides, the regioselectivity of the reaction depends upon the cocatalyst employed. Iodide cocatalysis results in opening at the less hindered position via an iodohydrin intermediate. Titanocene cocatalysis results in opening at the more hindered position, presumably via Ti(III)-mediated radical generation. 1,2-Disubstituted epoxides are opened under both conditions to form predominantly the trans product.

Substituted 2,2'-bipyridines by nickel-catalysis: 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine

A simple, ligand-free synthesis of the important bipyridyl ligand 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine is presented. 5,5'-bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,2'-bipyridine is also synthesized by the same protocol. The syntheses efficiently couple the parent 2-chlorpyridies by a nickel-catalyzed dimerization with manganese powder as the terminal reductant.