In-Vivo Quantitative Image Analysis of Age-Related Morphological Changes of C. elegans Neurons Reveals a Correlation between Neurite Bending and Novel Neurite Outgrowths

Structural changes shaping the Drosophila ellipsoid body ER-neurons during development and aging

The ellipsoid body (EB) of the insect brain performs pivotal functions in controlling navigation. Input and output of the EB is provided by multiple classes of R-neurons (now referred to as ER-neurons) and columnar neurons which interact with each other in a stereotypical and spatially highly ordered manner. The developmental mechanisms that control the connectivity and topography of EB neurons are largely unknown. One indispensable prerequisite to unravel these mechanisms is to document in detail the sequence of events that shape EB neurons during their development. In this study, we analyzed the development of the Drosophila EB. In addition to globally following the ER-neuron and columnar neuron (sub)classes in the spatial context of their changing environment we performed a single cell analysis using the multi-color flip out (MCFO) system to analyze the developmental trajectory of ER-neurons at different pupal stages, young adults (4d) and aged adults (∼60d). We show that the EB develops as a merger of two distinct elements, a posterior and anterior EB primordium (prEBp and prEBa, respectively. ER-neurons belonging to different subclasses form growth cones and filopodia that associate with the prEBp and prEBa in a pattern that, from early pupal stages onward, foreshadows their mature structure. Filopodia of all ER-subclasses are initially much longer than the dendritic and terminal axonal branches they give rise to, and are pruned back during late pupal stages. Interestingly, extraneous branches, particularly significant in the dendritic domain, are a hallmark of ER-neuron structure in aged brains. Aging is also associated with a decline in synaptic connectivity from columnar neurons, as well as upregulation of presynaptic protein (Brp) in ER-neurons. Our findings advance the EB (and ER-neurons) as a favorable system to visualize and quantify the development and age-related decline of a complex neuronal circuitry.

How do neurons age? A focused review on the aging of the microtubular cytoskeleton

Aging is the leading risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. We now understand that a breakdown in the neuronal cytoskeleton, mainly underpinned by protein modifications leading to the destabilization of microtubules, is central to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. This is accompanied by morphological defects across the somatodendritic compartment, axon, and synapse. However, knowledge of what occurs to the microtubule cytoskeleton and morphology of the neuron during physiological aging is comparatively poor. Several recent studies have suggested that there is an age-related increase in the phosphorylation of the key microtubule stabilizing protein tau, a modification, which is known to destabilize the cytoskeleton in Alzheimer's disease. This indicates that the cytoskeleton and potentially other neuronal structures reliant on the cytoskeleton become functionally compromised during normal physiological aging. The current literature shows age-related reductions in synaptic spine density and shifts in synaptic spine conformation which might explain age-related synaptic functional deficits. However, knowledge of what occurs to the microtubular and actin cytoskeleton, with increasing age is extremely limited. When considering the somatodendritic compartment, a regression in dendrites and loss of dendritic length and volume is reported whilst a reduction in soma volume/size is often seen. However, research into cytoskeletal change is limited to a handful of studies demonstrating reductions in and mislocalizations of microtubule-associated proteins with just one study directly exploring the integrity of the microtubules. In the axon, an increase in axonal diameter and age-related appearance of swellings is reported but like the dendrites, just one study investigates the microtubules directly with others reporting loss or mislocalization of microtubule-associated proteins. Though these are the general trends reported, there are clear disparities between model organisms and brain regions that are worthy of further investigation. Additionally, longitudinal studies of neuronal/cytoskeletal aging should also investigate whether these age-related changes contribute not just to vulnerability to disease but also to the decline in nervous system function and behavioral output that all organisms experience. This will highlight the utility, if any, of cytoskeletal fortification for the promotion of healthy neuronal aging and potential protection against age-related neurodegenerative disease. This review seeks to summarize what is currently known about the physiological aging of the neuron and microtubular cytoskeleton in the hope of uncovering mechanisms underpinning age-related risk to disease.

In-vivo screening implicates endoribonuclease Regnase-1 in modulating senescence-associated lysosomal changes

Accumulation of senescent cells accelerates aging and age-related diseases, whereas preventing this accumulation extends the lifespan in mice. A characteristic of senescent cells is increased staining with β-galactosidase (β-gal) ex vivo. Here, we describe a progressive accumulation of β-gal staining in the model organism C. elegans during aging. We show that distinct pharmacological and genetic interventions targeting the mitochondria and the mTORC1 to the nuclear core complex axis, the non-canonical apoptotic, and lysosomal-autophagy pathways slow the age-dependent accumulation of β-gal. We identify a novel gene, rege-1/Regnase-1/ZC3H12A/MCPIP1, modulating β-gal staining via the transcription factor ets-4/SPDEF. We demonstrate that knocking down Regnase-1 in human cell culture prevents senescence-associated β-gal accumulation. Our data provide a screening pipeline to identify genes and drugs modulating senescence-associated lysosomal phenotypes.

Removal of extracellular human amyloid beta aggregates by extracellular proteases in C. elegans

The amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques found in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients' brains contain collagens and are embedded extracellularly. Several collagens have been proposed to influence Aβ aggregate formation, yet their role in clearance is unknown. To investigate the potential role of collagens in forming and clearance of extracellular aggregates in vivo, we created a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans strain that expresses and secretes human Aβ1-42. This secreted Aβ forms aggregates in two distinct places within the extracellular matrix. In a screen for extracellular human Aβ aggregation regulators, we identified different collagens to ameliorate or potentiate Aβ aggregation. We show that a disintegrin and metalloprotease a disintegrin and metalloprotease 2 (ADM-2), an ortholog of ADAM9, reduces the load of extracellular Aβ aggregates. ADM-2 is required and sufficient to remove the extracellular Aβ aggregates. Thus, we provide in vivo evidence of collagens essential for aggregate formation and metalloprotease participating in extracellular Aβ aggregate removal.

Reprogramming of adult human dermal fibroblasts to induced dorsal forebrain precursor cells maintains aging signatures

Introduction: With the increase in aging populations around the world, the development of in vitro human cell models to study neurodegenerative disease is crucial. A major limitation in using induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology to model diseases of aging is that reprogramming fibroblasts to a pluripotent stem cell state erases age-associated features. The resulting cells show behaviors of an embryonic stage exhibiting longer telomeres, reduced oxidative stress, and mitochondrial rejuvenation, as well as epigenetic modifications, loss of abnormal nuclear morphologies, and age-associated features. Methods: We have developed a protocol utilizing stable, non-immunogenic chemically modified mRNA (cmRNA) to convert adult human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) to human induced dorsal forebrain precursor (hiDFP) cells, which can subsequently be differentiated into cortical neurons. Analyzing an array of aging biomarkers, we demonstrate for the first time the effect of direct-to-hiDFP reprogramming on cellular age. Results: We confirm direct-to-hiDFP reprogramming does not affect telomere length or the expression of key aging markers. However, while direct-to-hiDFP reprogramming does not affect senescence-associated β-galactosidase activity, it enhances the level of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and the amount of DNA methylation compared to HDFs. Interestingly, following neuronal differentiation of hiDFPs we observed an increase in cell soma size as well as neurite number, length, and branching with increasing donor age suggesting that neuronal morphology is altered with age. Discussion: We propose direct-to-hiDFP reprogramming provides a strategy for modeling age-associated neurodegenerative diseases allowing the persistence of age-associated signatures not seen in hiPSC-derived cultures, thereby facilitating our understanding of neurodegenerative disease and identification of therapeutic targets.

Surface acoustic wave microfluidics for repetitive and reversible temporary immobilization of C. elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is an important genetic model for neuroscience studies, used for analyses of how genes control connectivity, neuronal function, and behavior. To date, however, most studies of neuronal function in C. elegans are incapable of obtaining microscopy imaging with subcellular resolution and behavior analysis in the same set of animals. This constraint stems from the immobilization requirement for high-resolution imaging that is incompatible with behavioral analysis using conventional immobilization techniques. Here, we present a novel microfluidic device that uses surface acoustic waves (SAW) as a non-contact method to temporarily immobilize worms for a short period (30 seconds). We optimize the SAW based protocol for rapid switching between free-swimming and immobilized states, facilitating non-invasive analysis of swimming behavior as well as high-resolution synaptic imaging in the same animal. We find that the coupling of heat and acoustic pressure play a key role in the immobilization process. We introduce a proof-of-concept longitudinal study, illustrating that the device enables repeated imaging of fluorescently tagged synaptic receptors in command interneurons and analysis of swimming behavior in the same animals for three days. This longitudinal approach provides the first correlative analysis of synaptic glutamatergic receptors and swimming behavior in aging animals. We anticipate that this device will enable further longitudinal analysis of animal motility and subcellular morphological changes during development and aging in C. elegans.

1-Mesityl-3-(3-Sulfonatopropyl) Imidazolium Protects Against Oxidative Stress and Delays Proteotoxicity in C. elegans

Due to the increase in life expectancy worldwide, age-related disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) have become more prevalent. Conventional treatments comprise drugs that only attenuate some of the symptoms, but fail to arrest or delay neuronal proteotoxicity that characterizes these diseases. Due to their diverse biological activities, imidazole rings are intensively explored as powerful scaffolds for the development of new bioactive molecules. By using C. elegans, our work aims to explore novel biological roles for these compounds. To this end, we have tested the in vivo anti-proteotoxic effects of imidazolium salts. Since NDs have been largely linked to impaired antioxidant defense mechanisms, we focused on 1-Mesityl-3-(3-sulfonatopropyl) imidazolium (MSI), one of the imidazolium salts that we identified as capable of improving iron-induced oxidative stress resistance in wild-type animals. By combining mutant and gene expression analysis we have determined that this protective effect depends on the activation of the Heat Shock Transcription Factor (HSF-1), whereas it is independent of other canonical cytoprotective molecules such as abnormal Dauer Formation-16 (DAF-16/FOXO) and Skinhead-1 (SKN-1/Nrf2). To delve deeper into the biological roles of MSI, we analyzed the impact of this compound on previously established C. elegans models of protein aggregation. We found that MSI ameliorates β-amyloid-induced paralysis in worms expressing the pathological protein involved in Alzheimer’s Disease. Moreover, this compound also delays age-related locomotion decline in other proteotoxic C. elegans models, suggesting a broad protective effect. Taken together, our results point to MSI as a promising anti-proteotoxic compound and provide proof of concept of the potential of imidazole derivatives in the development of novel therapies to retard age-related proteotoxic diseases.

Longevity interventions temporally scale healthspan in Caenorhabditis elegans

Human centenarians and longevity mutants of model organisms show lower incidence rates of late-life morbidities than the average population. However, whether longevity is caused by a compression of the portion of life spent in a state of morbidity, i.e., "sickspan," is highly debated even in isogenic Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, we developed a microfluidic device that employs acoustophoretic force fields to quantify the maximum muscle strength and dynamic power in aging C. elegans. Together with different biomarkers for healthspan, we found a stochastic onset of morbidity, starting with a decline in dynamic muscle power and structural integrity, culminating in frailty. Surprisingly, we did not observe a compression of sickspan in longevity mutants but instead observed a temporal scaling of healthspan. Given the conservation of these longevity interventions, this raises the question of whether the healthspan of mammalian longevity interventions is also temporally scaled.

End-of-life targeted degradation of DAF-2 insulin/IGF-1 receptor promotes longevity free from growth-related pathologies

Preferably, lifespan-extending therapies should work when applied late in life without causing undesired pathologies. Reducing insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling (IIS) increases lifespan across species, but the effects of reduced IIS interventions in extreme geriatric ages remains unknown. Using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we engineered the conditional depletion of the DAF-2/insulin/IGF-1 transmembrane receptor using an auxin-inducible degradation (AID) system. This allowed for the temporal and spatial reduction in DAF-2 protein levels at time points after which interventions such as RNAi become ineffective. Using this system, we found that AID-mediated depletion of DAF-2 protein surpasses the longevity of daf-2 mutants. Depletion of DAF-2 during early adulthood resulted in multiple adverse phenotypes, including growth retardation, germline shrinkage, egg retention, and reduced brood size. By contrast, AID-mediated depletion of DAF-2 post-reproduction, or specifically in the intestine in early adulthood, resulted in an extension of lifespan without these deleterious effects. Strikingly, at geriatric ages, when 75% of the population had died, AID-mediated depletion of DAF-2 protein resulted in a doubling in lifespan. Thus, we provide a proof-of-concept that even close to the end of an individual’s lifespan, it is possible to slow aging and promote longevity.

The goal of geroscience, or research into old age, is to promote health during old age, and thus, to increase lifespan. In the body, the groups of biochemical reactions, or ‘pathways’, that allow an organism to sense nutrients, and regulate growth and stress, play major roles in ensuring healthy aging. Indeed, organisms that do not produce a working version of the insulin/IGF-1 receptor, a protein involved in one such pathway, show increased lifespan. In the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, mutations in the insulin/IGF-1 receptor can even double their lifespan. However, it is unclear whether this increase can be achieved once the organism has reached old age.

To answer this question, Venz et al. genetically engineered the nematode worm C. elegans so that they could trigger the rapid degradation of the insulin/IGF-1 receptor either in the entire organism or in a specific tissue. Venz et al. started by aging several C. elegans worms for three weeks, until about 75% had died. At this point, they triggered the degradation of the insulin/IGF-1 receptor in some of the remaining worms, keeping the rest untreated as a control for the experiment.

The results showed that the untreated worms died within a few days, while worms in which the insulin/IGF-1 receptor had been degraded lived for almost one more month. This demonstrates that it is possible to double the lifespan of an organism at the very end of life.

Venz et al.’s findings suggest that it is possible to make interventions to extend an organism’s lifespan near the end of life that are as effective as if they were performed when the organism was younger. This sparks new questions regarding the quality of this lifespan extension: do the worms become younger with the intervention, or is aging simply slowed down?

Lifespan-Associated Gene Expression Signatures of Recombinant BXD Mice Implicates Coro7 and Set in Longevity

Although genetic approaches have identified key genes and pathways that promote longevity, systems-level approaches are less utilized. Here, we took advantage of the wealth of omics data characterizing the BXD family of mice. We associated transcript and peptide levels across five tissues from both female and male BXD isogenic lines with their median lifespan. We identified over 5000 genes that showed a longevity correlation in a given tissue. Surprisingly, we found less than 1% overlap among longevity-correlating genes across tissues and sex. These 1% shared genes consist of 51 genes, of which 13 have been shown to alter lifespan. Only two genes -Coro7 and Set- showed a longevity correlation in all tissues and in both sexes. While differential regulation of aging across tissues and sex has been reported, our systems-level analysis reveals two unique genes that may promote healthy aging in unique sex- and tissue-agnostic manner.

Structural aspects of the aging invertebrate brain

Aging is characterized by a decline in neuronal function in all animal species investigated so far. Functional changes are accompanied by and may be in part caused by, structurally visible degenerative changes in neurons. In the mammalian brain, normal aging shows abnormalities in dendrites and axons, as well as ultrastructural changes in synapses, rather than global neuron loss. The analysis of the structural features of aging neurons, as well as their causal link to molecular mechanisms on the one hand, and the functional decline on the other hand is crucial in order to understand the aging process in the brain. Invertebrate model organisms like Drosophila and C. elegans offer the opportunity to apply a forward genetic approach to the analysis of aging. In the present review, we aim to summarize findings concerning abnormalities in morphology and ultrastructure in invertebrate brains during normal aging and compare them to what is known for the mammalian brain. It becomes clear that despite of their considerably shorter life span, invertebrates display several age-related changes very similar to the mammalian condition, including the retraction of dendritic and axonal branches at specific locations, changes in synaptic density and increased accumulation of presynaptic protein complexes. We anticipate that continued research efforts in invertebrate systems will significantly contribute to reveal (and possibly manipulate) the molecular/cellular pathways leading to neuronal aging in the mammalian brain.

Directly converted astrocytes retain the ageing features of the donor fibroblasts and elucidate the astrocytic contribution to human CNS health and disease

Astrocytes are highly specialised cells, responsible for CNS homeostasis and neuronal activity. Lack of human in vitro systems able to recapitulate the functional changes affecting astrocytes during ageing represents a major limitation to studying mechanisms and potential therapies aiming to preserve neuronal health. Here, we show that induced astrocytes from fibroblasts donors in their childhood or adulthood display age‐related transcriptional differences and functionally diverge in a spectrum of age‐associated features, such as altered nuclear compartmentalisation, nucleocytoplasmic shuttling properties, oxidative stress response and DNA damage response. Remarkably, we also show an age‐related differential response of induced neural progenitor cells derived astrocytes (iNPC‐As) in their ability to support neurons in co‐culture upon pro‐inflammatory stimuli. These results show that iNPC‐As are a renewable, readily available resource of human glia that retain the age‐related features of the donor fibroblasts, making them a unique and valuable model to interrogate human astrocyte function over time in human CNS health and disease.