Glutamate transporters regulate extrasynaptic NMDA receptor modulation of Kv2.1 potassium channels

Calcium channel signalling at neuronal endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane junctions

Neurons are highly specialised cells that need to relay information over long distances and integrate signals from thousands of synaptic inputs. The complexity of neuronal function is evident in the morphology of their plasma membrane (PM), by far the most intricate of all cell types. Yet, within the neuron lies an organelle whose architecture adds another level to this morphological sophistication - the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Neuronal ER is abundant in the cell body and extends to distant axonal terminals and postsynaptic dendritic spines. It also adopts specialised structures like the spine apparatus in the postsynapse and the cisternal organelle in the axon initial segment. At membrane contact sites (MCSs) between the ER and the PM, the two membranes come in close proximity to create hubs of lipid exchange and Ca2+ signalling called ER-PM junctions. The development of electron and light microscopy techniques extended our knowledge on the physiological relevance of ER-PM MCSs. Equally important was the identification of ER and PM partners that interact in these junctions, most notably the STIM-ORAI and VAP-Kv2.1 pairs. The physiological functions of ER-PM junctions in neurons are being increasingly explored, but their molecular composition and the role in the dynamics of Ca2+ signalling are less clear. This review aims to outline the current state of research on the topic of neuronal ER-PM contacts. Specifically, we will summarise the involvement of different classes of Ca2+ channels in these junctions, discuss their role in neuronal development and neuropathology and propose directions for further research.

Salidroside modulates repolarization through stimulating Kv2.1 in rats

BACKGROUND

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel growth is strongly associated with the development of arrhythmia. Salidroside (Sal), an active component from Rhodiola crenulata, has been shown to exert protective effects against heart disease. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of Sal on Kv2.1 channel, and to explore the ionic mechanism of anti-arrhythmic.

METHODS

In this study, we utilized cisapride (Cis., A stimulant that prolongs the QT interval and causes cardiac arrhythmias) by intravenous injection to establish an arrhythmia model, and detected the effects of Sal on electrocardiography (ECG) and pressure volume loop (P-V loop) in SD rats. The effect of Sal on ECG of citalopram (Cit., a Kv2 channel inhibition)-evoked arrhythmia rat models was further evaluated by monitoring the dynamic changes of multiple indicators of ECG. Then, we detected the effect of Sal on the viability of hypoxic H9c2 cells using CCK-8 assay. After that, the effect of Sal on Kv channel currents (IKv) and Kv2.1 channel currents (IKv2.1) in H9c2 cells under normal and hypoxic conditions was examined using whole-cell patch clamp technique. In addition, the effect of Sal on IKv and IKv2.1 in H9c2 cells was determined under the inhibition of Kv and Kv2.1 channels. HEK293 cells stably transfected with Kv2.1 plasmids were also used to investigate the IKv2.1 changes under Sal pre-treated and co-incubated conditions. In addition, potential interactions of Sal with Kv2.1 protein were predicted and tested by molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation (MDS), localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) techniques, respectively. Furthermore, gene and protein levels of Kv2.1 in Sal-treated H9c2 cell were estimated by qRT-PCR, Western blot (WB) and immunofluorescence (IF) analysis.

RESULTS

Sal shortened the prolongated QT interval and ameliorated the cardiac impairment associated with arrhythmia in SD rats caused by Cis., as reflected in the ECG and P-V loop data. And Sal was also protective against arrhythmia in rats caused by Kv2 channel inhibition. At the cellular level, Sal increased cell viability after CoCl2-induced hypoxic injury in H9c2 cells. Whole-cell patch clamp assay confirmed that Sal inhibited both IKv and IKv2.1 in normal H9c2 cells, while enhanced IKv and IKv2.1 in cardiomyocytes after hypoxic injury. And Sal enhanced IKv inhibited by 1.5 mM 4-AP and upregulated all inhibition of Kv2 channels induced by 20 mM 4-AP administration, antagonized the IKv2.1 inhibitory effect of Cit. Moreover, Sal pre-administration for 24 h and immediate administration increased IKv2.1 in HEK293 cells stably transfected with Kv2.1 plasmids. Molecular docking demonstrated the potential binding of Sal to the Kv2.1 protein, with calculated binding energy of -5.4 kcal/mol. MDS test illustrated that the average hydrogen bonding of the Sal-Kv2.1 complexes was 30.89%. LSPR results verified the potential binding of Sal to Kv2.1 protein with an affinity value of 9.95 × 10-4 M. CETSA assay confirmed Sal can enhance the expression of Kv2.1 protein in H9c2 cells treated with heat, which suggests that Sal may bind to Kv2.1 protein. The results of WB, qRT-PCR, and IF further argued that Sal pre-administration for 24 h enhanced the levels of the Kv2.1 gene and protein (with no effects on the Kv2.1 gene and protein for H9c2 cells co-incubated with Sal for 6 h and 12 h).

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings indicate that Sal can resist drug-induced arrhythmias in SD rats, partially by modulating repolarization through stimulating Kv2.1.

Microglia-neuron-vascular interactions in ischemia

Cerebral ischemia is a devastating condition that results in impaired blood flow in the brain leading to acute brain injury. As the most common form of stroke, occlusion of cerebral arteries leads to a characteristic sequence of pathophysiological changes in the brain tissue. The mechanisms involved, and comorbidities that determine outcome after an ischemic event appear to be highly heterogeneous. On their own, the processes leading to neuronal injury in the absence of sufficient blood supply to meet the metabolic demand of the cells are complex and manifest at different temporal and spatial scales. While the contribution of non-neuronal cells to stroke pathophysiology is increasingly recognized, recent data show that microglia, the main immune cells of the central nervous system parenchyma, play previously unrecognized roles in basic physiological processes beyond their inflammatory functions, which markedly change during ischemic conditions. In this review, we aim to discuss some of the known microglia-neuron-vascular interactions assumed to contribute to the acute and delayed pathologies after cerebral ischemia. Because the mechanisms of neuronal injury have been extensively discussed in several excellent previous reviews, here we focus on some recently explored pathways that may directly or indirectly shape neuronal injury through microglia-related actions. These discoveries suggest that modulating gliovascular processes in different forms of stroke and other neurological disorders might have presently unexplored therapeutic potential in combination with neuroprotective and flow restoration strategies.

GLT-1a glutamate transporter nanocluster localization is associated with astrocytic actin and neuronal Kv2 clusters at sites of neuron-astrocyte contact

Introduction: Astrocytic GLT-1 glutamate transporters ensure the fidelity of glutamic neurotransmission by spatially and temporally limiting glutamate signals. The ability to limit neuronal hyperactivity relies on the localization and diffusion of GLT-1 on the astrocytic surface, however, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. We show that two isoforms of GLT-1, GLT-1a and GLT-1b, form nanoclusters on the surface of transfected astrocytes and HEK-293 cells. Methods: We used both fixed and live cell super-resolution imaging of fluorescent protein and epitope tagged proteins in co-cultures of rat astrocytes and neurons. Immunofluorescence techniques were also used. GLT1 diffusion was assessed via single particle tracking and fluorescence recovery after photobleach (FRAP). Results: We found GLT-1a, but not GLT-1b, nanoclusters concentrated adjacent to actin filaments which was maintained after addition of glutamate. GLT-1a nanocluster concentration near actin filaments was prevented by expression of a cytosolic GLT-1a C-terminus, suggesting the C-terminus is involved in the localization adjacent to cortical actin. Using super-resolution imaging, we show that astrocytic GLT-1a and actin co-localize in net-like structures around neuronal Kv2.1 clusters at points of neuron/astrocyte contact. Conclusion: Overall, these data describe a novel relationship between GLT-1a and cortical actin filaments, which localizes GLT-1a near neuronal structures responsive to ischemic insult.

ER-PM Junctions on GABAergic Interneurons Are Organized by Neuregulin 2/VAP Interactions and Regulated by NMDA Receptors

Neuregulins (NRGs) signal via ErbB receptors to regulate neural development, excitability, synaptic and network activity, and behaviors relevant to psychiatric disorders. Bidirectional signaling between NRG2/ErbB4 and NMDA receptors is thought to homeostatically regulate GABAergic interneurons in response to increased excitatory neurotransmission or elevated extracellular glutamate levels. Unprocessed proNRG2 forms discrete clusters on cell bodies and proximal dendrites that colocalize with the potassium channel Kv2.1 at specialized endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane (ER-PM) junctions, and NMDA receptor activation triggers rapid dissociation from ER-PM junctions and ectodomain shedding by ADAM10. Here, we elucidate the mechanistic basis of proNRG2 clustering at ER-PM junctions and its regulation by NMDA receptors. Importantly, we demonstrate that proNRG2 promotes the formation of ER-PM junctions by directly binding the ER-resident membrane tether VAP, like Kv2.1. The proNRG2 intracellular domain harbors two non-canonical, low-affinity sites that cooperatively mediate VAP binding. One of these is a cryptic and phosphorylation-dependent VAP binding motif that is dephosphorylated following NMDA receptor activation, thus revealing how excitatory neurotransmission promotes the dissociation of proNRG2 from ER-PM junctions. Therefore, proNRG2 and Kv2.1 can independently function as VAP-dependent organizers of neuronal ER-PM junctions. Based on these and prior studies, we propose that proNRG2 and Kv2.1 serve as co-regulated downstream effectors of NMDA receptors to homeostatically regulate GABAergic interneurons.

The AMIGO1 adhesion protein activates Kv2.1 voltage sensors

Kv2 voltage-gated potassium channels are modulated by amphoterin-induced gene and open reading frame (AMIGO) neuronal adhesion proteins. Here, we identify steps in the conductance activation pathway of Kv2.1 channels that are modulated by AMIGO1 using voltage-clamp recordings and spectroscopy of heterologously expressed Kv2.1 and AMIGO1 in mammalian cell lines. AMIGO1 speeds early voltage-sensor movements and shifts the gating charge-voltage relationship to more negative voltages. The gating charge-voltage relationship indicates that AMIGO1 exerts a larger energetic effect on voltage-sensor movement than is apparent from the midpoint of the conductance-voltage relationship. When voltage sensors are detained at rest by voltage-sensor toxins, AMIGO1 has a greater impact on the conductance-voltage relationship. Fluorescence measurements from voltage-sensor toxins bound to Kv2.1 indicate that with AMIGO1, the voltage sensors enter their earliest resting conformation, yet this conformation is less stable upon voltage stimulation. We conclude that AMIGO1 modulates the Kv2.1 conductance activation pathway by destabilizing the earliest resting state of the voltage sensors.

Kv2.1 mediates spatial and functional coupling of L-type calcium channels and ryanodine receptors in mammalian neurons

The voltage-gated K⁺ channel Kv2.1 serves a major structural role in the soma and proximal dendrites of mammalian brain neurons, tethering the plasma membrane (PM) to endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Although Kv2.1 clustering at neuronal ER-PM junctions (EPJs) is tightly regulated and highly conserved, its function remains unclear. By identifying and evaluating proteins in close spatial proximity to Kv2.1-containing EPJs, we discovered that a significant role of Kv2.1 at EPJs is to promote the clustering and functional coupling of PM L-type Ca²⁺ channels (LTCCs) to ryanodine receptor (RyR) ER Ca²⁺ release channels. Kv2.1 clustering also unexpectedly enhanced LTCC opening at polarized membrane potentials. This enabled Kv2.1-LTCC-RyR triads to generate localized Ca²⁺ release events (i.e., Ca²⁺ sparks) independently of action potentials. Together, these findings uncover a novel mode of LTCC regulation and establish a unique mechanism whereby Kv2.1-associated EPJs provide a molecular platform for localized somatodendritic Ca²⁺ signals in mammalian brain neurons.

Glutamate Transporters in Hippocampal LTD/LTP: Not Just Prevention of Excitotoxicity

Glutamate uptake is a process mediated by sodium-dependent glutamate transporters, preventing glutamate spillover from the synapse. Typically, astrocytes express higher amounts of glutamate transporters, thus being responsible for most of the glutamate uptake; nevertheless, neurons can also express these transporters, albeit in smaller concentrations. When not regulated, glutamate uptake can lead to neuronal death. Indeed, the majority of the studies regarding glutamate transporters have focused on excitotoxicity and the subsequent neuronal loss. However, later studies have found that glutamate uptake is not a static process, evincing a possible correlation between this phenomenon and the efficiency of synaptic transmission and plasticity. In this review, we will focus on the role of the increase in glutamate uptake that occurs during long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus, as well as on the impairment of long-term depression (LTD) under the same conditions. The mechanism underpinning the modulatory effect of glutamate transporters over synaptic plasticity still remains unascertained; yet, it appears to have a more prominent effect over the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), despite changes in other glutamate receptors may also occur.

Hyperexcitability and Hyperplasticity Disrupt Cerebellar Signal Transfer in the IB2 KO Mouse Model of Autism

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are pervasive neurodevelopmental conditions that often involve mutations affecting synaptic mechanisms. Recently, the involvement of cerebellum in ASDs has been suggested, but the underlying functional alterations remained obscure. We investigated single-neuron and microcircuit properties in IB2 (Islet Brain-2) KO mice of either sex. The IB2 gene (chr22q13.3 terminal region) deletion occurs in virtually all cases of Phelan-McDermid syndrome, causing autistic symptoms and a severe delay in motor skill acquisition. IB2 KO granule cells showed a larger NMDA receptor-mediated current and enhanced intrinsic excitability, raising the excitatory/inhibitory balance. Furthermore, the spatial organization of granular layer responses to mossy fibers shifted from a "Mexican hat" to a "stovepipe hat" profile, with stronger excitation in the core and weaker inhibition in the surround. Finally, the size and extension of long-term synaptic plasticity were remarkably increased. These results show for the first time that hyperexcitability and hyperplasticity disrupt signal transfer in the granular layer of IB2 KO mice, supporting cerebellar involvement in the pathogenesis of ASD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This article shows for the first time a complex set of alterations in the cerebellum granular layer of a mouse model [IB2 (Islet Brain-2) KO] of autism spectrum disorders. The IB2 KO in mice mimics the deletion of the corresponding gene in the Phelan-McDermid syndrome in humans. The changes reported here are centered on NMDA receptor hyperactivity, hyperplasticity, and hyperexcitability. These, in turn, increase the excitatory/inhibitory balance and alter the shape of center/surround structures that emerge in the granular layer in response to mossy fiber activity. These results support recent theories suggesting the involvement of cerebellum in autism spectrum disorders.

Kv2 Ion Channels Determine the Expression and Localization of the Associated AMIGO-1 Cell Adhesion Molecule in Adult Brain Neurons

Voltage-gated K⁺ (Kv) channels play important roles in regulating neuronal excitability. Kv channels comprise four principal α subunits, and transmembrane and/or cytoplasmic auxiliary subunits that modify diverse aspects of channel function. AMIGO-1, which mediates homophilic cell adhesion underlying neurite outgrowth and fasciculation during development, has recently been shown to be an auxiliary subunit of adult brain Kv2.1-containing Kv channels. We show that AMIGO-1 is extensively colocalized with both Kv2.1 and its paralog Kv2.2 in brain neurons across diverse mammals, and that in adult brain, there is no apparent population of AMIGO-1 outside of that colocalized with these Kv2 α subunits. AMIGO-1 is coclustered with Kv2 α subunits at specific plasma membrane (PM) sites associated with hypolemmal subsurface cisternae at neuronal ER:PM junctions. This distinct PM clustering of AMIGO-1 is not observed in brain neurons of mice lacking Kv2 α subunit expression. Moreover, in heterologous cells, coexpression of either Kv2.1 or Kv2.2 is sufficient to drive clustering of the otherwise uniformly expressed AMIGO-1. Kv2 α subunit coexpression also increases biosynthetic intracellular trafficking and PM expression of AMIGO-1 in heterologous cells, and analyses of Kv2.1 and Kv2.2 knockout mice show selective loss of AMIGO-1 expression and localization in neurons lacking the respective Kv2 α subunit. Together, these data suggest that in mammalian brain neurons, AMIGO-1 is exclusively associated with Kv2 α subunits, and that Kv2 α subunits are obligatory in determining the correct pattern of AMIGO-1 expression, PM trafficking and clustering.

Astroglial Glutamate Signaling and Uptake in the Hippocampus

Astrocytes have long been regarded as essentially unexcitable cells that do not contribute to active signaling and information processing in the brain. Contrary to this classical view, it is now firmly established that astrocytes can specifically respond to glutamate released from neurons. Astrocyte glutamate signaling is initiated upon binding of glutamate to ionotropic and/or metabotropic receptors, which can result in calcium signaling, a major form of glial excitability. Release of so-called gliotransmitters like glutamate, ATP and D-serine from astrocytes in response to activation of glutamate receptors has been demonstrated to modulate various aspects of neuronal function in the hippocampus. In addition to receptors, glutamate binds to high-affinity, sodium-dependent transporters, which results in rapid buffering of synaptically-released glutamate, followed by its removal from the synaptic cleft through uptake into astrocytes. The degree to which astrocytes modulate and control extracellular glutamate levels through glutamate transporters depends on their expression levels and on the ionic driving forces that decrease with ongoing activity. Another major determinant of astrocytic control of glutamate levels could be the precise morphological arrangement of fine perisynaptic processes close to synapses, defining the diffusional distance for glutamate, and the spatial proximity of transporters in relation to the synaptic cleft. In this review, we will present an overview of the mechanisms and physiological role of glutamate-induced ion signaling in astrocytes in the hippocampus as mediated by receptors and transporters. Moreover, we will discuss the relevance of astroglial glutamate uptake for extracellular glutamate homeostasis, focusing on how activity-induced dynamic changes of perisynaptic processes could shape synaptic transmission at glutamatergic synapses.

Defective trafficking of Kv2.1 channels in MPTP-induced nigrostriatal degeneration

Intracellular protein trafficking is tightly regulated, and improper trafficking might be the fundamental provocateur for human diseases including neurodegeneration. In neurons, protein trafficking to and from the plasma membrane affects synaptic plasticity. Voltage-gated potassium channel 2.1 (Kv2.1) is a predominant delayed rectifier potassium (K⁺ ) current, and electrical activity patterns of dopamine (DA) neurons within the substantia nigra are generated and modulated by the orchestrated function of different ion channels. The pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the progressive loss of these DA neurons, resulting in the degeneration of striatal dopaminergic terminals. However, whether trafficking of Kv2.1 channels contributes to PD remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that MPTP/MPP⁺ increases the surface expression of the Kv2.1 channel and causes nigrostriatal degeneration by using a subchronic MPTP mouse model. The inhibition of the Kv2.1 channel by using a specific blocker, guangxitoxin-1E, protected nigrostriatal projections against MPTP/MPP⁺ insult and thus facilitated the recovery of motor coordination. These findings highlight the importance of trafficking of Kv2.1 channels in the pathogenesis of PD.

Heterogeneity and function of hippocampal macroglia

The contribution of glial cells to normal and impaired hippocampal function is increasingly being recognized, although important questions as to the mechanisms that these cells use for their crosstalk with neurons and capillaries are still unanswered or lead to controversy. Astrocytes in the hippocampus are morphologically variable and a single cell contacts with its processes more than 100,000 synapses. They predominantly express inward rectifier K⁺ channels and transporters serving homeostatic function but may also release gliotransmitters to modify neuronal signaling and brain circulation. Intracellular Ca²⁺ transients are key events in the interaction of astrocytes with neurons and the vasculature. Hippocampal NG2 glia represent a population of cells with proliferative capacity throughout adulthood. Intriguingly, they receive direct synaptic input from pyramidal neurons and interneurons and express a multitude of ion channels and receptors. Despite in-depth knowledge about the features of these transmembrane proteins, the physiological impact of NG2 glial cells and their synaptic input remain nebulous. Because of the low abundance of oligodendrocytes in the hippocampus, limited information is available about their specific properties. Given the multitude of signaling molecules expressed by the various types of hippocampal glial cells (and because of space constraints), we focus, in this review, on those properties that are considered key for the interaction of the respective cell type with its neighborhood.

Zn(2+) -induced Ca(2+) release via ryanodine receptors triggers calcineurin-dependent redistribution of cortical neuronal Kv2.1 K(+) channels

KEY POINTS

Increases in intracellular Zn(2+) concentrations are an early, necessary signal for the modulation of Kv2.1 K(+) channel localization and physiological function. Intracellular Zn(2+) -mediated Kv2.1 channel modulation is dependent on calcineurin, a Ca(2+) -activated phosphatase. We show that intracellular Zn(2+) induces a significant increase in ryanodine receptor-dependent cytosolic Ca(2+) transients, which leads to a calcineurin-dependent redistribution of Kv2.1 channels from pre-existing membrane clusters to diffuse localization. As such, the link between Zn(2+) and Ca(2+) signalling in this Kv2.1 modulatory pathway is established. We observe that a sublethal ischaemic preconditioning insult also leads to Kv2.1 redistribution in a ryanodine receptor-dependent fashion. We suggest that Zn(2+) may be an early and ubiquitous signalling molecule mediating Ca(2+) release from the cortical endoplasmic reticulum via ryanodine receptor activation.

ABSTRACT

Sublethal injurious stimuli in neurons induce transient increases in free intracellular Zn(2+) that are associated with regulating adaptive responses to subsequent lethal injury, including alterations in the function and localization of the delayed-rectifier potassium channel, Kv2.1. However, the link between intracellular Zn(2+) signalling and the observed changes in Kv2.1 remain undefined. In the present study, utilizing exogenous Zn(2+) treatment, along with a selective Zn(2+) ionophore, we show that transient elevations in intracellular Zn(2+) concentrations are sufficient to induce calcineurin-dependent Kv2.1 channel dispersal in rat cortical neurons in vitro, which is accompanied by a relatively small but significant hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage-gated activation kinetics of the channel. Critically, using a molecularly encoded calcium sensor, we found that the calcineurin-dependent changes in Kv2.1 probably occur as a result of Zn(2+) -induced cytosolic Ca(2+) release via activation of neuronal ryanodine receptors. Finally, we couple this mechanism with an established model for in vitro ischaemic preconditioning and show that Kv2.1 channel modulation in this process is also ryanodine receptor-sensitive. Our results strongly suggest that intracellular Zn(2+) -initiated signalling may represent an early and possibly widespread component of Ca(2+) -dependent processes in neurons.

Disruption of KV2.1 somato-dendritic clusters prevents the apoptogenic increase of potassium currents

As the predominant mediator of the delayed rectifier current, K_V2.1 is an important regulator of neuronal excitability. K_V2.1, however, also plays a well-established role in apoptotic cell death. Apoptogenic stimuli induce syntaxin-dependent trafficking of K_V2.1, resulting in an augmented delayed rectifier current that acts as a conduit for K⁺ efflux required for pro-apoptotic protease/nuclease activation. Recent evidence suggests that K_V2.1 somato-dendritic clusters regulate the formation of endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane junctions that function as scaffolding sites for plasma membrane trafficking of ion channels, including K_V2.1. However, it is unknown whether K_V2.1 somato-dendritic clusters are required for apoptogenic trafficking of K_V2.1. By overexpression of a protein derived from the C-terminus of the cognate channel K_V2.2 (K_V2.2CT), we induced calcineurin-independent disruption of K_V2.1 somato-dendritic clusters in rat cortical neurons, without altering the electrophysiological properties of the channel. We observed that K_V2.2CT-expressing neurons are less susceptible to oxidative stress-induced cell death. Critically, expression of K_V2.2CT effectively blocked the increased current density of the delayed rectifier current associated with oxidative injury, supporting a vital role of K_V2.1-somato-dendritic clusters in apoptogenic increases in K_V2.1-mediated currents.

Structural Similarities between Neuregulin 1-3 Isoforms Determine Their Subcellular Distribution and Signaling Mode in Central Neurons

The Neuregulin (NRG) family of ErbB ligands is comprised of numerous variants originating from the use of different genes, alternative promoters, and splice variants. NRGs have generally been thought to be transported to axons and presynaptic terminals where they signal via ErbB3/4 receptors in paracrine or juxtacrine mode. However, we recently demonstrated that unprocessed pro-NRG2 accumulates on cell bodies and proximal dendrites, and that NMDAR activity is required for shedding of its ectodomain by metalloproteinases. Here we systematically investigated the subcellular distribution and processing of major NRG isoforms in rat hippocampal neurons. We show that NRG1 isotypes I and II, which like NRG2 are single-pass transmembrane proteins with an Ig-like domain, share the same subcellular distribution and ectodomain shedding properties. We furthermore show that NRG3, like CRD-NRG1, is a dual-pass transmembrane protein that harbors a second transmembrane domain near its amino terminus. Both NRG3 and CRD-NRG1 cluster on axons through juxtacrine interactions with ErbB4 present on GABAergic interneurons. Interestingly, although single-pass NRGs accumulate as unprocessed proforms, axonal puncta of CRD-NRG1 and NRG3 are comprised of processed protein. Mutations of CRD-NRG1 and NRG3 that render them resistant to BACE cleavage, as well as BACE inhibition, result in the loss of axonal puncta and in the accumulation of unprocessed proforms in neuronal soma. Together, these results define two groups of NRGs with distinct membrane topologies and fundamentally different targeting and processing properties in central neurons. The implications of this functional diversity for the regulation of neuronal processes by the NRG/ErbB pathway are discussed.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Numerous Neuregulins (NRGs) are generated through the use of different genes, promoters, and alternative splicing, but the functional significance of this evolutionary conserved diversity remains poorly understood. Here we show that NRGs can be categorized by their membrane topologies. Single-pass NRGs, such as NRG1 Types I/II and NRG2, accumulate as unprocessed proforms on cell bodies, and their ectodomains are shed by metalloproteinases in response to NMDA receptor activation. By contrast, dual-pass CRD-NRG1 and NRG3 are constitutively processed by BACE and accumulate on axons where they interact with ErbB4 in juxtacrine mode. These findings reveal a previously unknown functional relationship between membrane topology, protein processing, and subcellular distribution, and suggest that single- and dual-pass NRGs regulate neuronal functions in fundamentally different ways.

Differential potassium channel gene regulation in BXD mice reveals novel targets for pharmacogenetic therapies to reduce heavy alcohol drinking

Alcohol (ethanol) dependence is a chronic relapsing brain disorder partially influenced by genetics and characterized by an inability to regulate harmful levels of drinking. Emerging evidence has linked genes that encode K_V7, K_IR, and K_Ca2 K⁺ channels with variation in alcohol-related behaviors in rodents and humans. This led us to experimentally test relations between K⁺ channel genes and escalation of drinking in a chronic-intermittent ethanol (CIE) exposure model of dependence in BXD recombinant inbred strains of mice. Transcript levels for K⁺ channel genes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) covary with voluntary ethanol drinking in a non-dependent cohort. Transcripts that encode K_V7 channels covary negatively with drinking in non-dependent BXD strains. Using a pharmacological approach to validate the genetic findings, C57BL/6J mice were allowed intermittent access to ethanol to establish baseline consumption before they were treated with retigabine, an FDA-approved K_V7 channel positive modulator. Systemic administration significantly reduced drinking, and consistent with previous evidence, retigabine was more effective at reducing voluntary consumption in high-drinking than low-drinking subjects. We evaluated the specific K⁺ channel genes that were most sensitive to CIE exposure and identified a gene subset in the NAc and PFC that were dysregulated in the alcohol-dependent BXD cohort. CIE-induced modulation of nine genes in the NAc and six genes in the PFC covaried well with the changes in drinking induced by ethanol dependence. Here we identified novel candidate genes in the NAc and PFC that are regulated by ethanol dependence and correlate with voluntary drinking in non-dependent and dependent BXD mice. The findings that Kcnq expression correlates with drinking and that retigabine reduces consumption suggest that K_V7 channels could be pharmacogenetic targets to treat individuals with alcohol addiction.

Synaptic GluN2B/CaMKII-α Signaling Induces Synapto-Nuclear Transport of ERK and Jacob

A central pathway in synaptic plasticity couples N-Methyl-D-Aspartate-receptor (NMDAR)-signaling to the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) cascade. ERK-dependency has been demonstrated for several forms of synaptic plasticity as well as learning and memory and includes local synaptic processes but also long-distance signaling to the nucleus. It is, however, controversial how NMDAR signals are connected to ERK activation in dendritic spines and nuclear import of ERK. The synapto-nuclear messenger Jacob couples NMDAR-dependent Ca²⁺-signaling to CREB-mediated gene expression. Protein transport of Jacob from synapse to nucleus essentially requires activation of GluN2B-containing NMDARs. Subsequent phosphorylation and binding of ERK1/2 to and ERK-dependent phosphorylation of serine 180 in Jacob encodes synaptic but not extrasynaptic NMDAR activation. In this study we show that stimulation of synaptic NMDAR in hippocampal primary neurons and induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) in acute slices results in GluN2B-dependent activation of CaMKII-α and subsequent nuclear import of active ERK and serine 180 phosphorylated Jacob. On the contrary, no evidence was found that either GluN2A-containing NMDAR or RasGRF2 are upstream of ERK activation and nuclear import of Jacob and ERK.

Hippocampal hyperexcitability in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Pathological sharp waves and excitatory/inhibitory synaptic imbalance

Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) can lead to long-lasting neurological alterations that may predispose individuals to seizures and neurobehavioral dysfunction. To date, there exists limited information regarding the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The hippocampal CA3 region generates excitatory population activity, called sharp waves (SPWs), that provide an ideal model to study perturbations in neuronal excitability at the network and cellular levels. In the present study, we utilized a mouse model of PAE and used dual extracellular and whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from CA3 hippocampal pyramidal cells to evaluate the effect of 1st trimester-equivalent ethanol exposure (10% v/v) on SPW activity and excitatory/inhibitory balance. We observed that PAE significantly altered in vitro SPW waveforms, with an increased duration and amplitude, when compared to controls. In addition, PAE slices exhibited reduced pharmacological inhibition by the GABA-A receptor antagonist bicuculline (BMI) on SPW activity, and increased population spike paired-pulse ratios, all indicative of network disinhibition within the PAE hippocampus. Evaluation of PAE CA3 pyramidal cell activity associated with SPWs, revealed increased action potential cell firing, which was accompanied by an imbalance of excitatory/inhibitory synaptic drive, shifted in favor of excitation. Moreover, we observed intrinsic changes in CA3 pyramidal activity in PAE animals, including increased burst firing and instantaneous firing rate. This is the first study to provide evidence for hippocampal dysfunction in the ability to maintain network homeostasis and underlying cellular hyperexcitability in a model of PAE. These circuit and cellular level alterations may contribute to the increased propensity for seizures and neurobehavioral dysfunction observed in patients with a history of PAE.

17β estradiol recruits GluN2B-containing NMDARs and ERK during induction of long-term potentiation at temporoammonic-CA1 synapses

When circulating 17β estradiol (E2) is elevated to proestrous levels, hippocampus-dependent learning and memory is enhanced in female rodents, nonhuman primates, and women due to heightened synaptic function at hippocampal synapses. We previously reported that proestrous-like levels of E2 administered to young adult ovariectomized (OVX) female rats increases the magnitude of LTP at CA3 Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA1 synapses only when dendritic spine density, the NMDAR/AMPAR ratio, and current mediated by GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are simultaneously increased. We also reported that this increase in GluN2B-mediated NMDAR current in area CA1 is causally related to the E2-induced increase in novel object recognition, tying together heightened synaptic function with improved learning and memory. In addition to SC inputs, innervation from the entorhinal cortex in the temporoammonic (TA) pathway onto CA1 distal dendrites in stratum lacunosum-moleculare is critical for spatial memory formation and retrieval. It is not known whether E2 modulates TA-CA1 synapses similarly to SC-CA1 synapses. Here, we report that 24 hours post-E2 injection, dendritic spine density on CA1 pyramidal cell distal dendrites and current mediated by GluN2B-containing NMDARs at TA-CA1 synapses is increased, similarly to our previous findings at SC-CA1 synapses. However, in contrast to SC-CA1 synapses, AMPAR transmission at TA-CA1 synapses is significantly increased, and there is no effect on the LTP magnitude. Pharmacological blockade of GluN2B-containing NMDARs or ERK activation, which occurs downstream of synaptic but not extrasynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDARs, attenuates the LTP magnitude only in slices from E2-treated rats. These data show that E2 recruits a causal role for GluN2B-containing NMDARs and ERK signaling in the induction of LTP, cellular mechanisms not required for LTP induction at TA-CA1 synapses in vehicle-treated OVX female rats.

Induction of stable ER-plasma-membrane junctions by Kv2.1 potassium channels

Junctions between cortical endoplasmic reticulum (cER) and the plasma membrane are a subtle but ubiquitous feature in mammalian cells; however, very little is known about the functions and molecular interactions that are associated with neuronal ER-plasma-membrane junctions. Here, we report that Kv2.1 (also known as KCNB1), the primary delayed-rectifier K(+) channel in the mammalian brain, induces the formation of ER-plasma-membrane junctions. Kv2.1 localizes to dense, cell-surface clusters that contain non-conducting channels, indicating that they have a function that is unrelated to membrane-potential regulation. Accordingly, Kv2.1 clusters function as membrane-trafficking hubs, providing platforms for delivery and retrieval of multiple membrane proteins. Using both total internal reflection fluorescence and electron microscopy we demonstrate that the clustered Kv2.1 plays a direct structural role in the induction of stable ER-plasma-membrane junctions in both transfected HEK 293 cells and cultured hippocampal neurons. Glutamate exposure results in a loss of Kv2.1 clusters in neurons and subsequent retraction of the cER from the plasma membrane. We propose Kv2.1-induced ER-plasma-membrane junctions represent a new macromolecular plasma-membrane complex that is sensitive to excitotoxic insult and functions as a scaffolding site for both membrane trafficking and Ca(2+) signaling.

Ultrastructural changes to rat hippocampus in pentylenetetrazol- and kainic acid-induced status epilepticus: A study using electron microscopy

A pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced status epilepticus model in rats was used in the study. The brains were studied one month after treatment. Ultrastructural observations using electron microscopy performed on the neurons, glial cells, and synapses, in the hippocampal CA1 region of epileptic brains, demonstrated the following major changes over normal control brain tissue. (i) There is ultrastructural alterations in some neurons, glial cells and synapses in the hippocampal CA1 region. (ii) The destruction of cellular organelles and peripheral, partial or even total chromatolysis in some pyramidal cells and in interneurons are observed. Several astrocytes are proliferated or activated. Presynaptic terminals with granular vesicles and degenerated presynaptic profiles are rarely observed. (iii) The alterations observed are found to be dependent on the frequency of seizure activities following the PTZ treatment. It was observed that if seizure episodes are frequent and severe, the ultrastructure of hippocampal area is significantly changed. Interestingly, the ultrastructure of CA1 area is found to be only moderately altered if seizure episodes following the status epilepticus are rare and more superficial; (iv) alterations in mitochondria and dendrites are among the most common ultrastructural changes seen, suggesting cell stress and changes to cellular metabolism. These morphological changes, observed in brain neurons in status epilepticus, are a reflection of epileptic pathophysiology. Further studies at the chemical and molecular level of neurotransmitter release, such as at the level of porosomes (secretory portals) at the presynaptic membrane, will further reveal molecular details of these changes.

Cell type-specific spatial and functional coupling between mammalian brain Kv2.1 K+ channels and ryanodine receptors

The Kv2.1 voltage-gated K+ channel is widely expressed throughout mammalian brain, where it contributes to dynamic activity-dependent regulation of intrinsic neuronal excitability. Here we show that somatic plasma membrane Kv2.1 clusters are juxtaposed to clusters of intracellular ryanodine receptor (RyR) Ca2+ -release channels in mouse brain neurons, most prominently in medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the striatum. Electron microscopy-immunogold labeling shows that in MSNs, plasma membrane Kv2.1 clusters are adjacent to subsurface cisternae, placing Kv2.1 in close proximity to sites of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release. Immunofluorescence labeling in transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein in specific MSN populations reveals the most prominent juxtaposed Kv2.1:RyR clusters in indirect pathway MSNs. Kv2.1 in both direct and indirect pathway MSNs exhibits markedly lower levels of labeling with phosphospecific antibodies directed against the S453, S563, and S603 phosphorylation site compared with levels observed in neocortical neurons, although labeling for Kv2.1 phosphorylation at S563 was significantly lower in indirect pathway MSNs compared with those in the direct pathway. Finally, acute stimulation of RyRs in heterologous cells causes a rapid hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage dependence of activation of Kv2.1, typical of Ca2+ /calcineurin-dependent Kv2.1 dephosphorylation. Together, these studies reveal that striatal MSNs are distinct in their expression of clustered Kv2.1 at plasma membrane sites juxtaposed to intracellular RyRs, as well as in Kv2.1 phosphorylation state. Differences in Kv2.1 expression and phosphorylation between MSNs in direct and indirect pathways provide a cell- and circuit-specific mechanism for coupling intracellular Ca2+ release to phosphorylation-dependent regulation of Kv2.1 to dynamically impact intrinsic excitability.

Cyclin e1 regulates Kv2.1 channel phosphorylation and localization in neuronal ischemia

Kv2.1 is a major delayed rectifying K(+) channel normally localized to highly phosphorylated somatodendritic clusters in neurons. Excitatory stimuli induce calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation and dispersal of Kv2.1 clusters, with a concomitant hyperpolarizing shift in the channel's activation kinetics. We showed previously that sublethal ischemia, which renders neurons transiently resistant to excitotoxic cell death, can also induce Zn(2+)-dependent changes in Kv2.1 localization and activation kinetics, suggesting that activity-dependent modifications of Kv2.1 may contribute to cellular adaptive responses to injury. Recently, cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) was shown to phosphorylate Kv2.1, with pharmacological Cdk5 inhibition being sufficient to decluster channels. In another study, cyclin E1 was found to restrict neuronal Cdk5 kinase activity. We show here that cyclin E1 regulates Kv2.1 cellular localization via inhibition of Cdk5 activity. Expression of cyclin E1 in human embryonic kidney cells prevents Cdk5-mediated phosphorylation of Kv2.1, and cyclin E1 overexpression in rat cortical neurons triggers dispersal of Kv2.1 channel clusters. Sublethal ischemia in neurons induces calcineurin-dependent upregulation of cyclin E1 protein expression and cyclin E1-dependent Kv2.1 channel declustering. Importantly, overexpression of cyclin E1 in neurons is sufficient to reduce excitotoxic cell death. These results support a novel role for neuronal cyclin E1 in regulating the phosphorylation status and localization of Kv2.1 channels, a likely component of signaling cascades leading to ischemic preconditioning.

Exploring the role of central astrocytic glutamate uptake in ethanol reward in mice

BACKGROUND

Alcoholism is associated with specific brain abnormalities revealed through postmortem studies, including a reduction in glial cell number and dysregulated glutamatergic neurotransmission. Whether these abnormalities contribute to the etiology of alcoholism, are consequences of alcohol use, or both is still unknown.

METHODS

We investigated the role of astrocytic glutamate uptake in ethanol (EtOH) binge drinking in mice, using the "drinking in the dark" (DID) paradigm by blocking the astrocytic glutamate transporter (GLT-1) with intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of dihydrokainic acid (DHK). To determine whether astrocytic glutamate uptake regulates the conditioned rewarding effects of EtOH, we examined the effects of ICV DHK on the acquisition and expression of EtOH-induced conditioned place preference.

RESULTS

Blocking central astrocytic glutamate uptake selectively attenuated EtOH binge drinking behavior in mice. DHK did not alter the acquisition or expression of preference for EtOH-associated cues, indicating that reduced astrocytic glutamate trafficking may decrease binge-like drinking without altering the conditioned rewarding effects of EtOH.

CONCLUSIONS

Several alternative conclusions are plausible, however, interpreting these data in the context of the human literature, these findings suggest that the reduction of glia in the alcoholic brain may not be a predisposing factor to developing alcoholism and could be a consequence of EtOH toxicity that decreases excessive EtOH intake.

Deletion of the Kv2.1 delayed rectifier potassium channel leads to neuronal and behavioral hyperexcitability

The Kv2.1 delayed rectifier potassium channel exhibits high-level expression in both principal and inhibitory neurons throughout the central nervous system, including prominent expression in hippocampal neurons. Studies of in vitro preparations suggest that Kv2.1 is a key yet conditional regulator of intrinsic neuronal excitability, mediated by changes in Kv2.1 expression, localization and function via activity-dependent regulation of Kv2.1 phosphorylation. Here we identify neurological and behavioral deficits in mutant (Kv2.1(-/-) ) mice lacking this channel. Kv2.1(-/-) mice have grossly normal characteristics. No impairment in vision or motor coordination was apparent, although Kv2.1(-/-) mice exhibit reduced body weight. The anatomic structure and expression of related Kv channels in the brains of Kv2.1(-/-) mice appear unchanged. Delayed rectifier potassium current is diminished in hippocampal neurons cultured from Kv2.1(-/-) animals. Field recordings from hippocampal slices of Kv2.1(-/-) mice reveal hyperexcitability in response to the convulsant bicuculline, and epileptiform activity in response to stimulation. In Kv2.1(-/-) mice, long-term potentiation at the Schaffer collateral - CA1 synapse is decreased. Kv2.1(-/-) mice are strikingly hyperactive, and exhibit defects in spatial learning, failing to improve performance in a Morris Water Maze task. Kv2.1(-/-) mice are hypersensitive to the effects of the convulsants flurothyl and pilocarpine, consistent with a role for Kv2.1 as a conditional suppressor of neuronal activity. Although not prone to spontaneous seizures, Kv2.1(-/-) mice exhibit accelerated seizure progression. Together, these findings suggest homeostatic suppression of elevated neuronal activity by Kv2.1 plays a central role in regulating neuronal network function.

Distinct axo-somato-dendritic distributions of three potassium channels in CA1 hippocampal pyramidal cells

Potassium channels comprise the most diverse family of ion channels and play critical roles in a large variety of physiological and pathological processes. In addition to their molecular diversity, variations in their distributions and densities on the axo-somato-dendritic surface of neurons are key parameters in determining their functional impact. Despite extensive electrophysiological and anatomical investigations, the exact location and densities of most K⁺ channels in small subcellular compartments are still unknown. Here we aimed at providing a quantitative surface map of two delayed-rectifier (Kv1.1 and Kv2.1) and one G-protein-gated inwardly rectifying (Kir3.2) K⁺ channel subunits on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells (PCs). Freeze-fracture replica immunogold labelling was employed to determine the relative densities of these K⁺ channel subunits in 18 axo-somato-dendritic compartments. Significant densities of the Kv1.1 subunit were detected on axon initial segments (AISs) and axon terminals, with an approximately eight-fold lower density in the latter compartment. The Kv2.1 subunit was found in somatic, proximal dendritic and AIS plasma membranes at approximately the same densities. This subunit has a non-uniform plasma membrane distribution; Kv2.1 clusters are frequently adjacent to, but never overlap with, GABAergic synapses. A quasi-linear increase in the Kir3.2 subunit density along the dendrites of PCs was detected, showing no significant difference between apical dendritic shafts, oblique dendrites or dendritic spines at the same distance from the soma. Our results demonstrate that each subunit has a unique cell-surface distribution pattern, and predict their differential involvement in synaptic integration and output generation at distinct subcellular compartments.

Redistribution of Kv2.1 ion channels on spinal motoneurons following peripheral nerve injury

Pathophysiological responses to peripheral nerve injury include alterations in the activity, intrinsic membrane properties and excitability of spinal neurons. The intrinsic excitability of α-motoneurons is controlled in part by the expression, regulation, and distribution of membrane-bound ion channels. Ion channels, such as Kv2.1 and SK, which underlie delayed rectifier potassium currents and afterhyperpolarization respectively, are localized in high-density clusters at specific postsynaptic sites (Deardorff et al., 2013; Muennich and Fyffe, 2004). Previous work has indicated that Kv2.1 channel clustering and kinetics are regulated by a variety of stimuli including ischemia, hypoxia, neuromodulator action and increased activity. Regulation occurs via channel dephosphorylation leading to both declustering and alterations in channel kinetics, thus normalizing activity (Misonou et al., 2004; Misonou et al., 2005; Misonou et al., 2008; Mohapatra et al., 2009; Park et al., 2006). Here we demonstrate using immunohistochemistry that peripheral nerve injury is also sufficient to alter the surface distribution of Kv2.1 channels on motoneurons. The dynamic changes in channel localization include a rapid progressive decline in cluster size, beginning immediately after axotomy, and reaching maximum within one week. With reinnervation, the organization and size of Kv2.1 clusters do not fully recover. However, in the absence of reinnervation Kv2.1 cluster sizes fully recover. Moreover, unilateral peripheral nerve injury evokes parallel, but smaller effects bilaterally. These results suggest that homeostatic regulation of motoneuron Kv2.1 membrane distribution after axon injury is largely independent of axon reinnervation.

Voltage-gated potassium channels at the crossroads of neuronal function, ischemic tolerance, and neurodegeneration

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels are widely expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system and are crucial mediators of neuronal excitability. Importantly, these channels also actively participate in cellular and molecular signaling pathways that regulate the life and death of neurons. Injury-mediated increased K(+) efflux through Kv2.1 channels promotes neuronal apoptosis, contributing to widespread neuronal loss in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and stroke. In contrast, some forms of neuronal activity can dramatically alter Kv2.1 channel phosphorylation levels and influence their localization. These changes are normally accompanied by modifications in channel voltage dependence, which may be neuroprotective within the context of ischemic injury. Kv1 and Kv7 channel dysfunction leads to neuronal hyperexcitability that critically contributes to the pathophysiology of human clinical disorders such as episodic ataxia and epilepsy. This review summarizes the neurotoxic, neuroprotective, and neuroregulatory roles of Kv channels and highlights the consequences of Kv channel dysfunction on neuronal physiology. The studies described in this review thus underscore the importance of normal Kv channel function in neurons and emphasize the therapeutic potential of targeting Kv channels in the treatment of a wide range of neurological diseases.

Regulation of Kv2.1 K(+) conductance by cell surface channel density

The Kv2.1 voltage-gated K(+) channel is found both freely diffusing over the plasma membrane and concentrated in micron-sized clusters localized to the soma, proximal dendrites, and axon initial segment of hippocampal neurons. In transfected HEK cells, Kv2.1 channels within cluster microdomains are nonconducting. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, the number of GFP-tagged Kv2.1 channels on the HEK cell surface was compared with K(+) channel conductance measured by whole-cell voltage clamp of the same cell. This approach indicated that, as channel density increases, nonclustered channels cease conducting. At the highest density observed, only 4% of all channels were conducting. Mutant Kv2.1 channels that fail to cluster also possessed the nonconducting state with 17% conducting K(+) at higher surface densities. The nonconducting state was specific to Kv2.1 as Kv1.4 was always conducting regardless of the cell-surface expression level. Anti-Kv2.1 immunofluorescence intensity, standardized to Kv2.1 surface density in transfected HEK cells, was used to determine the expression levels of endogenous Kv2.1 in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. Endogenous Kv2.1 levels were compared with the number of conducting channels determined by whole-cell voltage clamp. Only 13 and 27% of the endogenous Kv2.1 was conducting in neurons cultured for 14 and 20 d, respectively. Together, these data indicate that the nonconducting state depends primarily on surface density as opposed to cluster location and that this nonconducting state also exists for native Kv2.1 found in cultured hippocampal neurons. This excess of Kv2.1 protein relative to K(+) conductance further supports a nonconducting role for Kv2.1 in excitable tissues.

Kv2.1 cell surface clusters are insertion platforms for ion channel delivery to the plasma membrane

Voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channels regulate membrane potential in many cell types. Although the channel surface density and location must be well controlled, little is known about Kv channel delivery and retrieval on the cell surface. The Kv2.1 channel localizes to micron-sized clusters in neurons and transfected human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells, where it is nonconducting. Because Kv2.1 is postulated to be involved in soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptor–mediated membrane fusion, we examined the hypothesis that these surface clusters are specialized platforms involved in membrane protein trafficking. Total internal reflection–based fluorescence recovery after photobleaching studies and quantum dot imaging of single Kv2.1 channels revealed that Kv2.1-containing vesicles deliver cargo at the Kv2.1 surface clusters in both transfected HEK cells and hippocampal neurons. More than 85% of cytoplasmic and recycling Kv2.1 channels was delivered to the cell surface at the cluster perimeter in both cell types. At least 85% of recycling Kv1.4, which, unlike Kv2.1, has a homogeneous surface distribution, is also delivered here. Actin depolymerization resulted in Kv2.1 exocytosis at cluster-free surface membrane. These results indicate that one nonconducting function of Kv2.1 is to form microdomains involved in membrane protein trafficking. This study is the first to identify stable cell surface platforms involved in ion channel trafficking.

The C-terminus of neuronal Kv2.1 channels is required for channel localization and targeting but not for NMDA-receptor-mediated regulation of channel function

The delayed rectifier voltage-gated potassium channel Kv2.1 underlies a majority of the somatic K(+) current in neurons and is particularly important for regulating intrinsic neuronal excitability. Various stimuli alter Kv2.1 channel gating as well as localization of the channel to cell-surface cluster domains. It has been postulated that specific domains within the C-terminus of Kv2.1 are critical for channel gating and sub-cellular localization; however, the distinct regions that govern these processes remain elusive. Here we show that the soluble C-terminal fragment of the closely related channel Kv2.2 displaces Kv2.1 from clusters in both rat hippocampal neurons and HEK293 cells, however neither steady-state activity nor N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-dependent modulation is altered in spite of this non-clustered localization. Further, we demonstrate that the C-terminus of Kv2.1 is not necessary for steady-state gating, sensitivity to intracellular phosphatase or NMDA-dependent modulation, though this region is required for localization of Kv2.1 to clusters. Thus, the molecular determinants of Kv2.1 localization and modulation are distinct regions of the channel that function independently.

Potentiation of synaptic strength and intrinsic excitability in the nucleus accumbens after 10 days of morphine withdrawal

Neuroadaptations in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) are associated with the development of drug addiction. Plasticity in synaptic strength and intrinsic excitability of NAc medium spiny neurons (MSNs) play critical roles in addiction induced by different classes of abused drugs. However, it is unknown whether morphine exposure influences synaptic strength, intrinsic excitability or both in NAc. Here we show that chronic withdrawal (10 days after the last injection) from repeated morphine exposure elicited potentiation in both glutamatergic synaptic strength and intrinsic excitability of MSNs in NAc shell (NAcSh). The potentiation of synaptic strength was demonstrated by an increase in the frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs), a decrease in the paired-pulse ratio (PPR), and an increase in the ratio of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole propionic acid receptors (AMPAR)- to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDAR)-mediated currents. The potentiation of intrinsic excitability was mediated by inhibition of the sustained potassium currents via extrasynaptic NMDAR activation. The function of the presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2/3) was downregulated, enhancing the probability of glutamate release on synaptic terminals during chronic morphine withdrawal. Pretreatment with the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 completely blocked potentiation of both synaptic strength and intrinsic excitability. These results suggest that chronic morphine withdrawal downregulates mGluR2/3 to induce potentiation of MSN glutamatergic synapse via increased glutamate release, leading to potentiation of intrinsic excitability. Such potentiation of both synaptic strength and intrinsic excitability might contribute to neuroadaptations induced by morphine application.

Activity-dependent phosphorylation of neuronal Kv2.1 potassium channels by CDK5

Dynamic modulation of ion channel expression, localization, and/or function drives plasticity in intrinsic neuronal excitability. Voltage-gated Kv2.1 potassium channels are constitutively maintained in a highly phosphorylated state in neurons. Increased neuronal activity triggers rapid calcineurin-dependent dephosphorylation, loss of channel clustering, and hyperpolarizing shifts in voltage-dependent activation that homeostatically suppress neuronal excitability. These changes are reversible, such that rephosphorylation occurs after removal of excitatory stimuli. Here, we show that cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5), a Pro-directed Ser/Thr protein kinase, directly phosphorylates Kv2.1, and determines the constitutive level of Kv2.1 phosphorylation, the rapid increase in Kv2.1 phosphorylation upon acute blockade of neuronal activity, and the recovery of Kv2.1 phosphorylation after stimulus-induced dephosphorylation. We also demonstrate that although the phosphorylation state of Kv2.1 is also shaped by the activity of the PP1 protein phosphatase, the regulation of Kv2.1 phosphorylation by CDK5 is not mediated through the previously described regulation of PP1 activity by CDK5. Together, these studies support a novel role for CDK5 in regulating Kv2.1 channels through direct phosphorylation.

Small conductance calcium-activated potassium type 2 channels regulate alcohol-associated plasticity of glutamatergic synapses

BACKGROUND

Small conductance calcium-activated potassium type 2 channels (SK2) control excitability and contribute to plasticity by reducing excitatory postsynaptic potentials. Recent evidence suggests that SK2 channels form a calcium-dependent negative-feedback loop with synaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Addiction to alcohol and other drugs of abuse induces plastic changes in glutamatergic synapses that include the targeting of NMDA receptors to synaptic sites; however, the role of SK2 channels in alcohol-associated homeostatic plasticity is unknown.

METHODS

Electrophysiology, Western blot, and behavioral analyses were used to quantify changes in hippocampal small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channel function and expression using well-characterized in vitro and in vivo models of chronic alcohol exposure.

RESULTS

Chronic ethanol reduced apamin-sensitive SK currents in cornu ammonis 1 pyramidal neurons that were associated with a downregulation of surface SK2 channels. Blocking SK channels with apamin potentiated excitatory postsynaptic potentials in control but not ethanol-treated cornu ammonis 1 pyramidal neurons, suggesting that chronic ethanol disrupts the SK channel-NMDA receptor feedback loop. Alcohol reduced expression of SK2 channels and increased expression of NMDA receptors at synaptic sites in a mouse model. Positive modulation of SK function by 1-EBIO decreased alcohol withdrawal hyperexcitability and attenuated ethanol withdrawal neurotoxicity in hippocampus. The 1-EBIO also reduced seizure activity in mice undergoing withdrawal.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide evidence that SK2 channels contribute to alcohol-associated adaptive plasticity of glutamatergic synapses and that positive modulation of SK channels reduces the severity of withdrawal-related hyperexcitability. Therefore, SK2 channels appear to be critical regulators of alcohol-associated plasticity and may be novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of addiction.

Immunolocalization of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv2.2 in GABAergic neurons in the basal forebrain of rats and mice

The Kv2 voltage-gated potassium channels, Kv2.1 and Kv2.2, are important regulators of neuronal excitability in mammalian brain. It has been shown that Kv2.1 channels are expressed in virtually all neurons in the brain. However, the cellular localization of Kv2.2 has not been fully elucidated. In this article we report that Kv2.2 is highly expressed in a subset of neurons in the magnocellular preoptic nucleus (MCPO) and the horizontal limb of the diagonal band of Broca (HDB) of the basal forebrain complex, which are areas highly implicated in the regulation of cortical activity and the sleep/wake cycle. It has been shown that MCPO and HDB contain distinct populations of neurons that differ in their neurochemicals, cholinergic, glutamatergic, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic neurons. Using specific immunolabeling and knockin mice in which green fluorescent protein (GFP) is expressed in GABAergic neurons, we found that Kv2.2 is abundantly expressed in a large subpopulation of the GABAergic neurons in the MCPO and HDB. These data offer Kv2.2 as a molecular target to study the role of the specific subpopulation of basal forebrain GABAergic neurons.

Prolonged Abeta treatment leads to impairment in the ability of primary cortical neurons to maintain K+ and Ca2+ homeostasis

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, characterised by the formation of insoluble amyloidogenic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Beta amyloid (Abeta) peptide is one of the main constituents in Abeta plaques, and is thought to be a primary causative agent in AD. Neurons are likely to be exposed to chronic, sublethal doses of Abeta over an extended time during the pathogenesis of AD, however most studies published to date using in vitro models have focussed on acute studies. To experimentally model the progressive pathogenesis of AD, we exposed primary cortical neurons daily to 1 muM of Abeta1-40 over 7 days and compared their survival with age-similar untreated cells. We also investigated whether chronic Abeta exposure affects neuronal susceptibility to the subsequent acute excitotoxicity induced by 10 muM glutamate and assessed how Ca2+ and K+ homeostasis were affected by either treatment.

RESULTS

We show that continuous exposure to 1 muM Abeta1-40 for seven days decreased survival of cultured cortical neurons by 20%. This decrease in survival correlated with increased K+ efflux from the cells. One day treatment with 1 muM Abeta followed by glutamate led to a substantially higher K+ efflux than in the age-similar untreated control. This difference further increased with the duration of the treatment. K+ efflux also remained higher in Abeta treated cells 20 min after glutamate application leading to 2.8-fold higher total K+ effluxed from the cells compared to controls. Ca2+ uptake was significantly higher only after prolonged Abeta treatment with 2.5-fold increase in total Ca2+ uptake over 20 min post glutamate application after six days of Abeta treatment or longer (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that long term exposure to Abeta is detrimental because it reduces the ability of cortical neurons to maintain K+ and Ca2+ homeostasis in response to glutamate challenge, a response that might underlie the early symptoms of AD. The observed inability to maintain K+ homeostasis might furthermore be useful in future studies as an early indicator of pathological changes in response to Abeta.

Dendritic ion channel trafficking and plasticity

Dendritic ion channels are essential for the regulation of intrinsic excitability as well as modulating the shape and integration of synaptic signals. Changes in dendritic channel function have been associated with many forms of synaptic plasticity. Recent evidence suggests that dendritic ion channel modulation and trafficking could contribute to plasticity-induced alterations in neuronal function. In this review we discuss our current knowledge of dendritic ion channel modulation and trafficking and their relationship to cellular and synaptic plasticity. We also consider the implications for neuronal function. We argue that to gain an insight into neuronal information processing it is essential to understand the regulation of dendritic ion channel expression and properties.

Analysis and functional implications of phosphorylation of neuronal voltage-gated potassium channels

Phosphorylation is the most common and abundant post-translational modification to eukaryotic proteins, regulating a plethora of dynamic cellular processes. Here, we review and discuss recent advances in our knowledge of the breadth and importance of reversible phosphorylation in regulating the expression, localization and function of mammalian neuronal voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels, key regulators of neuronal function. We highlight the role of modern mass spectrometric techniques and phosphospecific antibodies in revealing the extent and nature of phosphorylation at specific sites in Kv channels. We also emphasize the role of reversible phosphorylation in dynamically regulating diverse aspects of Kv channel biology. Finally, we discuss as important future directions the determination of the mechanistic basis for how altering phosphorylation state affects Kv channel expression, localization and function, the nature of macromolecular signaling complexes containing Kv channels and enzymes regulating their phosphorylation state, and the specific role of Kv channel phosphorylation in regulating neuronal function during physiological and pathophysiological events.

Localization-dependent activity of the Kv2.1 delayed-rectifier K+ channel

The Kv2.1 K(+) channel is highly expressed throughout the brain, where it regulates excitability during periods of high-frequency stimulation. Kv2.1 is unique among Kv channels in that it targets to large surface clusters on the neuronal soma and proximal dendrites. These clusters also form in transfected HEK cells. Following excessive excitatory stimulation, Kv2.1 declusters with an accompanying 20- to 30-mV hyperpolarizing shift in the activation threshold. Although most Kv2.1 channels are clustered, there is a pool of Kv2.1 resident outside of these domains. Using the cell-attached patch clamp technique, we investigated the hypothesis that Kv2.1 activity varies as a function of cell surface location. We found that clustered Kv2.1 channels do not efficiently conduct K(+), whereas the nonclustered channels are responsible for the high threshold delayed rectifier K(+) current typical of Kv2.1. Comparison of gating and ionic currents indicates only 2% of the surface channels conduct, suggesting that the clustered channels still respond to membrane potential changes. Declustering induced via either actin depolymerization or alkaline phosphatase treatment did not increase whole-cell currents. Dephosphorylation resulted in a 25-mV hyperpolarizing shift, whereas actin depolymerization did not alter the activation midpoint. Taken together, these data demonstrate that clusters do not contain high threshold Kv2.1 channels whose voltage sensitivity shifts upon declustering; nor are they a reservoir of nonconducting channels that are activated upon release. On the basis of these findings, we propose unique roles for the clustered Kv2.1 that are independent of K(+) conductance.

Homeostatic regulation of neuronal excitability by K(+) channels in normal and diseased brains

K(+)-selective ion channels are critical determinants of membrane excitability in neuronal cells. Like many other cells in our body, neuronal cells have a propensity to maintain their homeostasis. Action potential firing is the most important function to maintain in brain neurons, as they are the elements of neural networks. If one element fires action potentials at an abnormally high rate, the entire network could become epileptic. Therefore, brain neurons adjust their intrinsic membrane excitability to maintain the firing rate within their own optimal operational range. When a neuron receives an enormous input, it will reduce the membrane excitability to prevent overshooting. When it is deprived of stimulus, the membrane becomes more excitable to avoid total quiescence. The homeostatic regulation of intrinsic excitability provides stability to the neural network in the face of dynamic and plastic synaptic inputs. In the past decade, we have learned that neurons achieve this type of homeostatic regulation through a variety of ion channels, including K(+) channels. It has also become clear that under certain pathological conditions, these homeostatic mechanisms provide neuroprotection. In this article, I will review recent advances in our understanding of K(+) channel-mediated homeostatic regulation of neuronal excitability and discuss involvement of these channels in hyperexcitable diseases where they provide neuroprotection.

Changes in membrane excitability and potassium currents in sensitized dorsal horn neurons of mice pups

Rationally, an increased intrinsic excitability of dorsal horn neurons could be a factor contributing to alter the gain of the nociceptive system during central sensitization, however direct evidence is scarce. Here we have examined this hypothesis using current and voltage-clamp recordings from dorsal horn neurons in the spinal cord in vitro preparation obtained from mice pups of either sex. Cords were extracted from carrageenan-pretreated and control animals to allow for comparison. Dorsal horn neurons from treated animals showed significantly larger and faster synaptic responses. Synaptic changes started developing shortly after inflammation (1 h) and developed further after a longer-term inflammation (20 h). However, these neurons showed biphasic changes in membrane excitability with an increase shortly after inflammation and a decrease in the longer term. Concomitant changes were observed in transient (I(A)) and sustained potassium currents (I(DR)). Prolonged superfusion of naive spinal cords with NMDA led to a decreased neuronal excitability and to increased potassium currents. Results suggest that excitability plays a role more complex than expected during the process of central sensitization of dorsal horn neurons and that modulation of potassium currents may contribute to shape the changing states of excitability. The decreased excitability observed after long-term inflammation is interpreted as a homeostatic correction to an abnormal state of synaptic activity.

Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu2/3) in drug addiction

Drug addiction is characterized by maladaptive decision-making and dysfunctional brain circuitry regulating motivated behaviors, resulting in loss of the behavioral flexibility needed to abstain from drug seeking. Hence, addicts face high risk of relapse even after prolonged periods of abstinence from drug use. This is thought to result from long-lasting drug-induced neuroadaptations of glutamate and dopaminergic transmission in the mesocorticolimbic and cortico-striatal circuits where group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu(2/3) receptors) are densely expressed. mGlu(2/3) receptors presynaptically control glutamate as well as dopamine release throughout the mesocorticolimbic structures involved in reward processing and drug seeking, and their function is reduced after prolonged exposure to drugs of abuse. In pre-clinical models, mGlu(2/3) receptors have been shown to regulate both reward processing and drug seeking, in part through the capacity to control release of dopamine and glutamate respectively. Specifically, mGlu(2/3) receptor agonists administered systemically or locally into certain brain structures reduce the rewarding value of commonly abused drugs and inhibit the reinstatement of drug seeking. Given the ability of mGlu(2/3) receptor agonists to compensate for and possibly reverse drug-induced neuroadaptations in mesocorticolimbic circuitry, this class of receptors emerges as a new therapeutic target for reducing relapse in drug addiction.

Regulation of Kv2.1 phosphorylation in an animal model of anoxia

Conditions such as hypoxia and anoxia inflict serious damage to the brain and continue to be major medical problems. However, the molecular mechanisms that give rise to such damage are not well understood. To elucidate these mechanisms, we established a clinically relevant rodent model of anoxia/recovery by monitoring blood gas levels after oxygen deprivation. Using this animal model, we examined the regulation of Kv2.1, a voltage-gated potassium channel that plays pivotal roles in the homeostasis and survival of neurons. We found that exposure to anoxia induces rapid dephosphorylation of Kv2.1 in the brain, which can be blocked by pre-administration of a NMDA-type glutamate receptor antagonist, memantine. Furthermore, this change is rapidly reversed as the animal recovers from anoxic stress. These results suggest that Kv2.1 is tightly regulated in a clinically relevant animal model of anoxia and further implicate its role in the homeostasis of neurons during anoxic stress.

Involvement of the 4-aminopyridine-sensitive transient A-type K+ current in macrophage-induced neuronal injury

Through their capacity to secrete, upon activation, a variety of bioactive molecules, brain macrophages (and resident microglia) play an important role in brain immune and inflammatory responses. To test our hypothesis that activated macrophages induce neuronal injury by enhancing neuronal outward K(+) current, we studied the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) on neuronal transient A-type K(+) current (I(A)) and resultant neuronal injury in primary rat hippocampal neuronal cultures. Bath application of LPS-stimulated MDM-conditioned media (MCM+) enhanced neuronal I(A) in a concentration-dependent manner. Non-stimulated MCM (MCM-) failed to alter I(A). The enhancement of neuronal I(A) was recapitulated in neurons co-cultured with macrophages. The link of MCM(+)-induced enhancement of I(A) to MCM(+)-associated neuronal injury, as detected by propidium iodide and 4'',6-diamidino-2-phenylindol staining (DAPI) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, was demonstrated by experimental results showing that addition of I(A) blocker 4-aminopyridine to the cultures protected hippocampal neurons from MCM(+)-induced neuronal injury. Further investigation revealed that glutamate was involved in MCM(+)-induced enhancement of neuronal I(A). These results suggest that during brain inflammation macrophages (and microglia) might mediate neuronal injury via enhancement of neuronal I(A), and that neuronal K(v) channel might be a potential target for the development of therapeutic strategies for some neurodegenerative disorders by which immune and inflammatory responses are believed to be involved in the pathogenesis.

Ceftriaxone restores glutamate homeostasis and prevents relapse to cocaine seeking

BACKGROUND

The cystine-glutamate exchanger is downregulated after chronic cocaine, resulting in reduced extracellular levels of nucleus accumbens glutamate. The importance of cocaine-induced loss of glutamate homeostasis is revealed by N-acetylcysteine restoring cystine-glutamate exchange and attenuating reinstatement to cocaine seeking. Another regulator of extracellular glutamate is the glial glutamate transporter GLT-1. We hypothesized that cocaine self-administration reduces GLT-1 and that GLT-1 upregulation inhibits cocaine seeking.

METHODS

We measured [(3)H] glutamate uptake and protein expression of GLT-1 and xCT, the catalytic subunit of the cystine-glutamate exchanger, following cocaine self-administration and 3 weeks of extinction training. We also examined the affect of ceftriaxone (previously shown to increase GLT-1) and N-acetylcysteine treatment on the expression of GLT-1 and xCT. Ceftriaxone was also tested for the capacity to inhibit cue- and cocaine-induced relapse.

RESULTS

Cocaine self-administration reduced glutamate uptake and the expression of both GLT-1 and xCT. Ceftriaxone restored GLT-1 and xCT levels and prevented cue- and cocaine-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. N-acetylcysteine also restored GLT-1 and xCT levels.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that glutamate transport and cystine-glutamate exchange may be coregulated and provide further evidence that targeting glutamate homeostasis is a potential method for treating cocaine relapse.