High-Affinity Nicotinic Receptors Modulate Spontaneous Cortical Up States In Vitro

What risk factors for Developmental Language Disorder can tell us about the neurobiological mechanisms of language development

Language is a complex multidimensional cognitive system that is connected to many neurocognitive capacities. The development of language is therefore strongly intertwined with the development of these capacities and their neurobiological substrates. Consequently, language problems, for example those of children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), are explained by a variety of etiological pathways and each of these pathways will be associated with specific risk factors. In this review, we attempt to link previously described factors that may interfere with language development to putative underlying neurobiological mechanisms of language development, hoping to uncover openings for future therapeutical approaches or interventions that can help children to optimally develop their language skills.

Nicotinic Receptors in Sleep-Related Hypermotor Epilepsy: Pathophysiology and Pharmacology

Sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy (SHE) is characterized by hyperkinetic focal seizures, mainly arising in the neocortex during non-rapid eye movements (NREM) sleep. The familial form is autosomal dominant SHE (ADSHE), which can be caused by mutations in genes encoding subunits of the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), Na⁺-gated K⁺ channels, as well as non-channel signaling proteins, such as components of the gap activity toward rags 1 (GATOR1) macromolecular complex. The causative genes may have different roles in developing and mature brains. Under this respect, nicotinic receptors are paradigmatic, as different pathophysiological roles are exerted by distinct nAChR subunits in adult and developing brains. The widest evidence concerns α4 and β2 subunits. These participate in heteromeric nAChRs that are major modulators of excitability in mature neocortical circuits as well as regulate postnatal synaptogenesis. However, growing evidence implicates mutant α2 subunits in ADSHE, which poses interpretive difficulties as very little is known about the function of α2-containing (α2*) nAChRs in the human brain. Planning rational therapy must consider that pharmacological treatment could have different effects on synaptic maturation and adult excitability. We discuss recent attempts towards precision medicine in the mature brain and possible approaches to target developmental stages. These issues have general relevance in epilepsy treatment, as the pathogenesis of genetic epilepsies is increasingly recognized to involve developmental alterations.

Long-Term Effects of Early Life Seizures on Endogenous Local Network Activity of the Mouse Neocortex

Understanding the long term impact of early life seizures (ELS) is of vital importance both for researchers and clinicians. Most experimental studies of how seizures affect the developing brain have drawn their conclusions based on changes detected at the cellular or behavioral level, rather than on intermediate levels of analysis, such as the physiology of neuronal networks. Neurons work as part of networks and network dynamics integrate the function of molecules, cells and synapses in the emergent properties of brain circuits that reflect the balance of excitation and inhibition in the brain. Therefore, studying network dynamics could help bridge the cell-to-behavior gap in our understanding of the neurobiological effects of seizures. To this end we investigated the long-term effects of ELS on local network dynamics in mouse neocortex. By using the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced animal model of generalized seizures, single or multiple seizures were induced at two different developmental stages (P9-15 or P19-23) in order to examine how seizure severity and brain maturational status interact to affect the brain's vulnerability to ELS. Cortical physiology was assessed by comparing spontaneous network activity (in the form of recurring Up states) in brain slices of adult (>5 mo) mice. In these experiments we examined two distinct cortical regions, the primary motor (M1) and somatosensory (S1) cortex in order to investigate regional differences in vulnerability to ELS. We find that the effects of ELSs vary depending on (i) the severity of the seizures (e.g., single intermittent ELS at P19-23 had no effect on Up state activity, but multiple seizures induced during the same period caused a significant change in the spectral content of spontaneous Up states), (ii) the cortical area examined, and (iii) the developmental stage at which the seizures are administered. These results reveal that even moderate experiences of ELS can have long lasting age- and region-specific effects in local cortical network dynamics.

Evolution in Neuromodulation-The Differential Roles of Acetylcholine in Higher Order Association vs. Primary Visual Cortices

This review contrasts the neuromodulatory influences of acetylcholine (ACh) on the relatively conserved primary visual cortex (V1), compared to the newly evolved dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex (dlPFC). ACh is critical both for proper circuit development and organization, and for optimal functioning of mature systems in both cortical regions. ACh acts through both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, which show very different expression profiles in V1 vs. dlPFC, and differing effects on neuronal firing. Cholinergic effects mediate attentional influences in V1, enhancing representation of incoming sensory stimuli. In dlPFC ACh plays a permissive role for network communication. ACh receptor expression and ACh actions in higher visual areas have an intermediate profile between V1 and dlPFC. This changing role of ACh modulation across association cortices may help to illuminate the particular susceptibility of PFC in cognitive disorders, and provide therapeutic targets to strengthen cognition.

Locus coeruleus phasic discharge is essential for stimulus-induced gamma oscillations in the prefrontal cortex

The locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic (NE) neuromodulatory system is critically involved in regulation of neural excitability via its diffuse ascending projections. Tonic NE release in the forebrain is essential for maintenance of vigilant states and increases the signal-to-noise ratio of cortical sensory responses. The impact of phasic NE release on cortical activity and sensory processing is less explored. We previously reported that LC microstimulation caused a transient desynchronization of population activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), similar to noxious somatosensory stimuli. The LC receives nociceptive information from the medulla and therefore may mediate sensory signaling to its forebrain targets. Here we performed extracellular recordings in LC and mPFC while presenting noxious stimuli in urethane-anesthetized rats. A brief train of foot shocks produced a robust phasic response in the LC and a transient change in the mPFC power spectrum, with the strongest modulation in the gamma (30-90 Hz) range. The LC phasic response preceded prefrontal gamma power increase, and cortical modulation was proportional to the LC excitation. We also quantitatively characterized distinct cortical states and showed that sensory responses in both LC and mPFC depend on the ongoing cortical state. Finally, cessation of the LC firing by bilateral local iontophoretic injection of clonidine, an α₂-adrenoreceptor agonist, completely eliminated sensory responses in the mPFC without shifting cortex to a less excitable state. Together, our results suggest that the LC phasic response induces gamma power increase in the PFC and is essential for mediating sensory information along an ascending noxious pathway. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our study shows linear relationships between locus coeruleus phasic excitation and the amplitude of gamma oscillations in the prefrontal cortex. Results suggest that the locus coeruleus phasic response is essential for mediating sensory information along an ascending noxious pathway.

Sex differences in endogenous cortical network activity: spontaneously recurring Up/Down states

BACKGROUND

Several molecular and cellular processes in the vertebrate brain exhibit differences between males and females, leading to sexual dimorphism in the formation of neural circuits and brain organization. While studies on large-scale brain networks provide ample evidence for both structural and functional sex differences, smaller-scale local networks have remained largely unexplored. In the current study, we investigate sexual dimorphism in cortical dynamics by means of spontaneous Up/Down states, a type of network activity that is exhibited during slow-wave sleep, quiet wakefulness, and anesthesia and is thought to represent the default activity of the cortex.

METHODS

Up state activity was monitored by local field potential recordings in coronal brain slices of male and female mice across three ages with distinct secretion profiles of sex hormones: (i) pre-puberty (17-21 days old), (ii) 3-9 adult (months old), and (iii) old (19-24 months old).

RESULTS

Female mice of all ages exhibited longer and more frequent Up states compared to aged-matched male mice. Power spectrum analysis revealed sex differences in the relative power of Up state events, with female mice showing reduced power in the delta range (1-4 Hz) and increased power in the theta range (4-8 Hz) compared to male mice. No sex differences were found in the characteristics of Up state peak voltage and latency.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study revealed for the first time sex differences in intracortical network activity, using an ex vivo paradigm of spontaneously occurring Up/Down states. We report significant sex differences in Up state properties that are already present in pre-puberty animals and are maintained through adulthood and old age.

High-Throughput Analysis of in-vitro LFP Electrophysiological Signals: A validated workflow/software package

Synchronized brain activity in the form of alternating epochs of massive persistent network activity and periods of generalized neural silence, has been extensively studied as a fundamental form of circuit dynamics, important for many cognitive functions including short-term memory, memory consolidation, or attentional modulation. A key element in such studies is the accurate determination of the timing and duration of those network events. The local field potential (LFP) is a particularly attractive method for recording network activity, because it allows for long and stable recordings from multiple sites, allowing researchers to estimate the functional connectivity of local networks. Here, we present a computational method for the automatic detection and quantification of in-vitro LFP events, aiming to overcome the limitations of current approaches (e.g. slow analysis speed, arbitrary threshold-based detection and lack of reproducibility across and within experiments). The developed method is based on the implementation of established signal processing and machine learning approaches, is fully automated and depends solely on the data. In addition, it is fast, highly efficient and reproducible. The performance of the software is compared against semi-manual analysis and validated by verification of prior biological knowledge.

Chrna2-Martinotti Cells Synchronize Layer 5 Type A Pyramidal Cells via Rebound Excitation

Martinotti cells are the most prominent distal dendrite–targeting interneurons in the cortex, but their role in controlling pyramidal cell (PC) activity is largely unknown. Here, we show that the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α2 subunit (Chrna2) specifically marks layer 5 (L5) Martinotti cells projecting to layer 1. Furthermore, we confirm that Chrna2-expressing Martinotti cells selectively target L5 thick-tufted type A PCs but not thin-tufted type B PCs. Using optogenetic activation and inhibition, we demonstrate how Chrna2-Martinotti cells robustly reset and synchronize type A PCs via slow rhythmic burst activity and rebound excitation. Moreover, using optical feedback inhibition, in which PC spikes controlled the firing of surrounding Chrna2-Martinotti cells, we found that neighboring PC spike trains became synchronized by Martinotti cell inhibition. Together, our results show that L5 Martinotti cells participate in defined cortical circuits and can synchronize PCs in a frequency-dependent manner. These findings suggest that Martinotti cells are pivotal for coordinated PC activity, which is involved in cortical information processing and cognitive control.

Cognitive functions and information processing are linked to the coordination of neuronal events and activities. This coordination is achieved through the synchronization of neuronal signals within subnetworks. Local networks contain different types of nerve cells, each of them playing distinct roles in the synchronization mechanism. To understand how synchronization is initiated and maintained, we have identified one of the key players using genetic strategies; we have identified a subtype of nicotine receptors uniquely expressed in cortical Martinotti cells. Because of their architecture and connection properties, Martinotti cells are able to synchronize ongoing activity of unconnected pyramidal cells (PCs). We show that this mechanism only applies to one subtype of PCs, thereby demonstrating that Martinotti cell inhibition is not spread randomly. By testing optimal firing patterns of Martinotti cells, we are able to coordinate the firing of this specific PC subtype over longer periods of time, showing how one unique interneuron is contributing to information processing.

EEG Source Reconstruction in Male Nonsmokers after Nicotine Administration during the Resting State

Modern psychopharmacological research in humans focuses on how specific psychoactive molecules modulate oscillatory brain activity. We present state-of-the-art EEG methods applied in a resting-state drug study. Thirty healthy male nonsmokers were randomly allocated either to a nicotine group (14 subjects, 7 mg transdermal nicotine) or a placebo group (16 subjects). EEG activity was recorded in eyes-open (EO) and eyes-closed (EC) conditions before and after drug administration. A source reconstruction (minimum norm algorithm) analysis was conducted within a frequency range of 8.5-18.4 Hz subdivided into three different frequency bands. During EO, nicotine reduced the power of oscillatory activity in the 12.5- to 18.4-Hz frequency band in the left middle frontal gyrus. In contrast, in the EC condition, nicotine reduced the power in the 8.5- to 10.4-Hz frequency band in the superior frontal gyri and in the 10.5- to 12.4-Hz and 12.5- to 18.4-Hz frequency bands in the supplementary motor areas. In summary, nicotine reduced the power of the 12.5- to 18.4-Hz band in the left middle frontal gyrus during EO, and it reduced power from 8.5 to 18.4 Hz in a brain area spanning from the superior frontal gyri to the supplementary motor areas during EC. In conclusion, the results suggest that nicotine counteracts the phenomenon of anteriorization of α activity, hence potentially increasing the level of vigilance.

Spontaneous Neuronal Network Persistent Activity in the Neocortex: A(n) (Endo)phenotype of Brain (Patho)physiology

Abnormal synaptic homeostasis in the cerebral cortex represents a risk factor for both psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, from autism and schizophrenia to Alzheimer's disease. Neurons via synapses form recurrent networks that are intrinsically active in the form of oscillating activity, visible at increasingly macroscopic neurophysiological levels: from single cell recordings to the local field potentials (LFPs) to the clinically relevant electroencephalography (EEG). Understanding in animal models the defects at the level of neural circuits is important in order to link molecular and cellular phenotypes with behavioral phenotypes of neurodevelopmental and/or neurodegenerative brain disorders. In this study we introduce the novel idea that recurring persistent network activity (Up states) in the neocortex at the reduced level of the brain slice may be used as an endophenotype of brain disorders that will help us understand not only how local microcircuits of the cortex may be affected in brain diseases, but also when, since an important issue for the design of successful treatment strategies concerns the time window available for intervention.

Nicotinic receptors in mouse prefrontal cortex modulate ultraslow fluctuations related to conscious processing

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays an important role in cognitive processes, including access to consciousness. The PFC receives significant cholinergic innervation and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) contribute greatly to the effects of acetylcholine signaling. Using in vivo two-photon imaging of both awake and anesthetized mice, we recorded spontaneous, ongoing neuronal activity in layer II/III in the PFC of WT mice and mice deleted for different nAChR subunits. As in humans, this activity is characterized by synchronous ultraslow fluctuations and neuronal synchronicity is disrupted by light general anesthesia. Both the α7 and β2 nAChR subunits play an important role in the generation of ultraslow fluctuations that occur to a different extent during quiet wakefulness and light general anesthesia. The β2 subunit is specifically required for synchronized activity patterns. Furthermore, chronic application of mecamylamine, an antagonist of nAChRs, disrupts the generation of ultraslow fluctuations. Our findings provide new insight into the ongoing spontaneous activity in the awake and anesthetized state, and the role of cholinergic neurotransmission in the orchestration of cognitive functions.

Accumulation of human full-length tau induces degradation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α4 via activating calpain-2

Cholinergic impairments and tau accumulation are hallmark pathologies in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD), however, the intrinsic link between tau accumulation and cholinergic deficits is missing. Here, we found that overexpression of human wild-type full-length tau (termed hTau) induced a significant reduction of α4 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) with an increased cleavage of the receptor producing a ~55kDa fragment in primary hippocampal neurons and in the rat brains, meanwhile, the α4 nAChR currents decreased. Further studies demonstrated that calpains, including calpain-1 and calpain-2, were remarkably activated with no change of caspase-3, while simultaneous suppression of calpain-2 by selective calpain-2 inhibitor but not calpain-1 attenuated the hTau-induced degradation of α4 nAChR. Finally, we demonstrated that hTau accumulation increased the basal intracellular calcium level in primary hippocampal neurons. We conclude that the hTau accumulation inhibits nAChRs α4 by activating calpain-2. To our best knowledge, this is the first evidence showing that the intracellular accumulation of tau causes cholinergic impairments.

Integration of inhibitory and excitatory effects of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation in the prelimbic cortex regulates network activity and plasticity

Cognitive and attentional processes governed by the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are influenced by cholinergic innervation. Here we have explored the role of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) as mediators of cholinergic signalling in the dorsomedial (prelimbic) PFC, using mouse brain slice electrophysiology. Activation of α7 nAChRs located on glutamatergic terminals and cell soma of GABAergic interneurons increased excitation and inhibition, respectively, in layer V of the prelimbic cortex. These actions were distinguished by their differential dependence on local acetylcholine (ACh): potentiation of endogenous cholinergic signalling with the positive allosteric modulator, PNU-120596, enhanced spontaneous excitatory events, an effect that was further increased by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. In contrast, α7 nicotinic modulation of inhibitory signalling required addition of exogenous agonist (PNU-282987) as well as PNU-120596, and was unaffected by acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Thus α7 nAChRs can bi-directionally regulate network activity in the prelimbic cortex, depending on the magnitude and localisation of cholinergic signalling. This bidirectional influence is manifest in dual effects of α7 nAChRs on theta-burst-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) in layer V of the prelimbic cortex. Antagonism of α7 nAChRs significantly decreased LTP implicating a contribution from endogenous ACh, consistent with the ability of local ACh to enhance glutamatergic signalling. Exogenous agonist plus potentiator also decreased LTP, indicative of the influence of this drug combination on inhibitory signalling. Thus α7 nAChRs make a complex contribution to network activity and synaptic plasticity in the prelimbic cortex.

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α7 nAChRs exist at glutamatergic nerve terminals in the prelimbic cortex.

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α7 nAChRs exist at GABAergic cell bodies in the prelimbic cortex.

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Tonic ACh preferentially activates α7 nAChRs at glutamatergic nerve terminals.

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α7 nAChRs exert bidirectional control of LTP in the prelimbic cortex.

Spontaneous Up states in vitro: a single-metric index of the functional maturation and regional differentiation of the cerebral cortex

Understanding the development and differentiation of the neocortex remains a central focus of neuroscience. While previous studies have examined isolated aspects of cellular and synaptic organization, an integrated functional index of the cortical microcircuit is still lacking. Here we aimed to provide such an index, in the form of spontaneously recurring periods of persistent network activity -or Up states- recorded in mouse cortical slices. These coordinated network dynamics emerge through the orchestrated regulation of multiple cellular and synaptic elements and represent the default activity of the cortical microcircuit. To explore whether spontaneous Up states can capture developmental changes in intracortical networks we obtained local field potential recordings throughout the mouse lifespan. Two independent and complementary methodologies revealed that Up state activity is systematically modified by age, with the largest changes occurring during early development and adolescence. To explore possible regional heterogeneities we also compared the development of Up states in two distinct cortical areas and show that primary somatosensory cortex develops at a faster pace than primary motor cortex. Our findings suggest that in vitro Up states can serve as a functional index of cortical development and differentiation and can provide a baseline for comparing experimental and/or genetic mouse models.