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Battiston T, Comboni D, Pagliaro F, Lotti P, Hanfland M, Glazyrin K, Liermann HP, Gatta GD. Pressure-mediated crystal-fluid interaction in the zeolite offretite. J SOLID STATE CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2023.123847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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2
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Irshad KA, Kumar NRS, Kumar MM, Jena H. Structural Stability and Phase Transitions in Zeolite A: An In Situ High Pressure-High Temperature Investigation. Inorg Chem 2022; 61:13792-13801. [PMID: 36001636 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c01626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The high pressure-high temperature structural stability of Zeolite A (ZA) has been studied using the X-ray diffraction (XRD) method. Structural studies at high temperatures show a reduction in the oxygen occupancy, belonging to the water molecule, indicating thermal dehydration and subsequent expulsion of water molecules from the pores of the structure. ZA does not undergo structural phase transition with temperature. However, structural transitions are observed in in situ XRD studies at high pressure and high temperature. At 1.3 GPa and 300 °C, the cubic ZA concomitantly transformed to cubic sodalite (SOD) and tetragonal zeolite NaP (ZNP). This transition was completely forbidden at 2.7 GPa, where a temperature-induced amorphization was favored at 250 °C. The thermal studies at higher pressure reveal the marginal influence of pressure on the thermal expansion coefficients of hydrated ZA. Pressure evolution of the high pressure-high temperature phases indicates no further phase transitions up to 5.9 GPa. The equation of state fit to the pressure-volume data of these phases show that ZNP is less compressible, followed by SOD and ZA. In contrast to the behavior at 0.1 MPa, SOD shows a pressure-induced negative thermal expansion (NTE) at 5.9 GPa. On the other hand, the positive thermal expansion (PTE) observed along the direction of c axis is compensated by the NTE along the a axis leading to a negligible volume thermal expansion for the ZNP structure. The bulk moduli and thermal expansion coefficients of all of the observed phases are reported. The outcomes of this study have been consolidated as a pressure-temperature phase diagram, which provides an insight into the technological and industrial applications of ZA at extreme conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Irshad
- Materials Chemistry Division, Materials Chemistry and Metal Fuel Cycle Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India.,Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste, Trieste 34149, Italy
| | - N R Sanjay Kumar
- Condensed Matter Physics Division, Materials Science Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India
| | - M Mahima Kumar
- Materials Chemistry Division, Materials Chemistry and Metal Fuel Cycle Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India
| | - Hrudananda Jena
- Materials Chemistry Division, Materials Chemistry and Metal Fuel Cycle Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India
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3
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Nearchou A, Cornelius MLU, Jones ZL, Collings IE, Wells SA, Raithby PR, Sartbaeva A. Pressure-induced symmetry changes in body-centred cubic zeolites. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:182158. [PMID: 31417704 PMCID: PMC6689579 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.182158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Previous work has shown a strong correlation between zeolite framework flexibility and the nature of structural symmetry and phase transitions. However, there is little experimental data regarding this relationship, in addition to how flexibility can be connected to the synthesis of these open-framework materials. This is of interest for the synthesis of novel zeolites, which require organic additives to permutate the resulting geometry and symmetry of the framework. Here, we have used high-pressure powder X-ray diffraction to study the three zeolites: Na-X, RHO and ZK-5, which can all be prepared using 18-crown-6 ether as an organic additive. We observe significant differences in how the occluded 18-crown-6 ether influences the framework flexibility-this being dependent on the geometry of the framework. We use these differences as an indicator to define the role of 18-crown-6 ether during zeolite crystallization. Furthermore, in conjunction with previous work, we predict that pressure-induced symmetry transitions are intrinsic to body-centred cubic zeolites. The high symmetry yields fewer degrees of freedom, meaning it is energetically favourable to lower the symmetry to facilitate further compression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony Nearchou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Mero-Lee U. Cornelius
- Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7535, South Africa
| | - Zöe L. Jones
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - I. E. Collings
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Stephen A. Wells
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Paul R. Raithby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Asel Sartbaeva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
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4
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Abstract
Abstract
Confinement of molecules in one dimensional arrays of channel-shaped cavities has led to technologically interesting materials. However, the interactions governing the supramolecular aggregates still remain obscure, even for the most common guest molecule: water. Herein, we use computational chemistry methods (#compchem) to study the water organization inside two different channel-type environments: zeolite L – a widely used matrix for inclusion of dye molecules, and ZLMOF – the closest metal-organic-framework mimic of zeolite L. In ZLMOF, the methyl groups of the ligands protrude inside the channels, creating nearly isolated nanocavities. These cavities host well-separated ring-shaped clusters of water molecules, dominated mainly by water-water hydrogen bonds. ZLMOF provides arrays of “isolated supramolecule” environments, which might be exploited for the individual confinement of small species with interesting optical or catalytic properties. In contrast, the one dimensional channels of zeolite L contain a continuous supramolecular structure, governed by the water interactions with potassium cations and by water-water hydrogen bonds. Water imparts a significant energetic stabilization to both materials, which increases with the water content in ZLMOF and follows the opposite trend in zeolite L. The water network in zeolite L contains an intriguing hypercoordinated structure, where a water molecule is surrounded by five strong hydrogen bonds. Such a structure, here described for the first time in zeolites, can be considered as a water pre-dissociation complex and might explain the experimentally detected high proton activity in zeolite L nanochannels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ettore Fois
- Department of Science and High Technology and INSTM , Università degli Studi dell’Insubria , Via Valleggio 11 , I-22100 Como , Italy
| | - Gloria Tabacchi
- Department of Science and High Technology and INSTM , Università degli Studi dell’Insubria , Via Valleggio 11 , I-22100 Como , Italy
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5
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Marqueño T, Santamaria-Perez D, Ruiz-Fuertes J, Chuliá-Jordán R, Jordá JL, Rey F, McGuire C, Kavner A, MacLeod S, Daisenberger D, Popescu C, Rodriguez-Hernandez P, Muñoz A. An Ultrahigh CO 2-Loaded Silicalite-1 Zeolite: Structural Stability and Physical Properties at High Pressures and Temperatures. Inorg Chem 2018; 57:6447-6455. [PMID: 29737842 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report the formation of an ultrahigh CO2-loaded pure-SiO2 silicalite-1 structure at high pressure (0.7 GPa) from the interaction of empty zeolite and fluid CO2 medium. The CO2-filled structure was characterized in situ by means of synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction. Rietveld refinements and Fourier recycling allowed the location of 16 guest carbon dioxide molecules per unit cell within the straight and sinusoidal channels of the porous framework to be analyzed. The complete filling of pores by CO2 molecules favors structural stability under compression, avoiding pressure-induced amorphization below 20 GPa, and significantly reduces the compressibility of the system compared to that of the parental empty one. The structure of CO2-loaded silicalite-1 was also monitored at high pressures and temperatures, and its thermal expansivity was estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Marqueño
- MALTA-Departamento de Física Aplicada-ICMUV , Universidad de Valencia , E-46100 Valencia , Spain
| | - David Santamaria-Perez
- MALTA-Departamento de Física Aplicada-ICMUV , Universidad de Valencia , E-46100 Valencia , Spain
| | - Javier Ruiz-Fuertes
- MALTA-Departamento de Física Aplicada-ICMUV , Universidad de Valencia , E-46100 Valencia , Spain.,MALTA-DCITIMAC , Universidad de Cantabria , E-39005 Santander , Spain
| | - Raquel Chuliá-Jordán
- MALTA-Departamento de Física Aplicada-ICMUV , Universidad de Valencia , E-46100 Valencia , Spain
| | - Jose L Jordá
- Instituto de Tecnología Química , Universitat Politècnica de València - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas , E-46022 Valencia , Spain
| | - Fernando Rey
- Instituto de Tecnología Química , Universitat Politècnica de València - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas , E-46022 Valencia , Spain
| | - Chris McGuire
- Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences Department , University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
| | - Abby Kavner
- Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences Department , University of California Los Angeles , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
| | - Simon MacLeod
- Atomic Weapons Establishment , Aldermaston, Reading RG7 4PR , U.K.,Institute of Shock Physics , Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ , U.K
| | | | - Catalin Popescu
- CELLS-ALBA Synchrotron, Cerdanyola del Valles , E-08290 Barcelona , Spain
| | - Placida Rodriguez-Hernandez
- Departamento de Física , Instituto de Materiales y Nanotecnología, MALTA Consolider Team, Universidad de La Laguna , E-38200 La Laguna , Tenerife , Spain
| | - Alfonso Muñoz
- Departamento de Física , Instituto de Materiales y Nanotecnología, MALTA Consolider Team, Universidad de La Laguna , E-38200 La Laguna , Tenerife , Spain
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6
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7
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Geng G, Myers RJ, Qomi MJA, Monteiro PJM. Densification of the interlayer spacing governs the nanomechanical properties of calcium-silicate-hydrate. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10986. [PMID: 28887517 PMCID: PMC5591233 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11146-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Calciuam-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) is the principal binding phase in modern concrete. Molecular simulations imply that its nanoscale stiffness is ‘defect-driven’, i.e., dominated by crystallographic defects such as bridging site vacancies in its silicate chains. However, experimental validation of this result is difficult due to the hierarchically porous nature of C-S-H down to nanometers. Here, we integrate high pressure X-ray diffraction and atomistic simulations to correlate the anisotropic deformation of nanocrystalline C-S-H to its atomic-scale structure, which is changed by varying the Ca-to-Si molar ratio. Contrary to the ‘defect-driven’ hypothesis, we clearly observe stiffening of C-S-H with increasing Ca/Si in the range 0.8 ≤ Ca/Si ≤ 1.3, despite increasing numbers of vacancies in its silicate chains. The deformation of these chains along the b-axis occurs mainly through tilting of the Si-O-Si dihedral angle rather than shortening of the Si-O bond, and consequently there is no correlation between the incompressibilities of the a- and b-axes and the Ca/Si. On the contrary, the intrinsic stiffness of C-S-H solid is inversely correlated with the thickness of its interlayer space. This work provides direct experimental evidence to conduct more realistic modelling of C-S-H-based cementitious material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqing Geng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States.
| | - Rupert J Myers
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States.,School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511, United States
| | | | - Paulo J M Monteiro
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States. .,Material Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, 94720, United States.
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8
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Arletti R, Leardini L, Vezzalini G, Quartieri S, Gigli L, Santoro M, Haines J, Rouquette J, Konczewicz L. Pressure-induced penetration of guest molecules in high-silica zeolites: the case of mordenite. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:24262-74. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp03561a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A synthetic high-silica mordenite (HS-MOR) has been compressed in both non-penetrating (silicone oil, s.o.) and penetrating [methanol : ethanol : water (16 : 3 : 1) (m.e.w.), water : ethanol (3 : 1) (w.e.), and ethylene glycol (e.gl.)] pressure transmitting media (PTM).
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Arletti
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
- Università di Torino
- I-10125 Torino
- Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre “Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces-NIS”
| | - L. Leardini
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra
- Università di Messina
- I-98166 Messina S. Agata
- Italy
| | - G. Vezzalini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche
- Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia
- I-41125 Modena
- Italy
| | - S. Quartieri
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra
- Università di Messina
- I-98166 Messina S. Agata
- Italy
| | - L. Gigli
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
- Università di Torino
- I-10125 Torino
- Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre “Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces-NIS”
| | - M. Santoro
- Istituto Nazionale di Ottica
- INO-CNR
- I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino
- Italy
- European Laboratory for Non Linear Spectroscopy (LENS)
| | - J. Haines
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier
- UMR 5253 CNRS
- Equipe C2M
- Université de Montpellier
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - J. Rouquette
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier
- UMR 5253 CNRS
- Equipe C2M
- Université de Montpellier
- 34095 Montpellier
| | - L. Konczewicz
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb
- UMR 5221 CNRS
- Université de Montpellier
- 34095 Montpellier
- France
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9
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Readman JE, Lennie A, Hriljac JA. In-situ high-pressure powder X-ray diffraction study of α-zirconium phosphate. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION B, STRUCTURAL SCIENCE, CRYSTAL ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS 2014; 70:510-516. [PMID: 24892598 DOI: 10.1107/s2052520614011317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The high-pressure structural chemistry of α-zirconium phosphate, α-Zr(HPO4)2·H2O, was studied using in-situ high-pressure diffraction and synchrotron radiation. The layered phosphate was studied under both hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic conditions and Rietveld refinement carried out on the resulting diffraction patterns. It was found that under hydrostatic conditions no uptake of additional water molecules from the pressure-transmitting medium occurred, contrary to what had previously been observed with some zeolite materials and a layered titanium phosphate. Under hydrostatic conditions the sample remained crystalline up to 10 GPa, but under non-hydrostatic conditions the sample amorphized between 7.3 and 9.5 GPa. The calculated bulk modulus, K0 = 15.2 GPa, showed the material to be very compressible with the weak linkages in the structure of the type Zr-O-P.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Readman
- Centre for Materials Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, England
| | - Alistair Lennie
- Synchrotron Radiation Source, Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington WA4 4AD England
| | - Joseph A Hriljac
- School of Chemisty, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, England
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10
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Vezzalini G, Arletti R, Quartieri S. High-pressure-induced structural changes, amorphization and molecule penetration in MFI microporous materials: a review. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION B-STRUCTURAL SCIENCE CRYSTAL ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS 2014; 70:444-51. [DOI: 10.1107/s2052520614008014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This is a comparative study on the high-pressure behavior of microporous materials with an MFI framework type (i.e.natural mutinaite, ZSM-5 and the all-silica phase silicalite-1), based onin-situexperiments in which penetrating and non-penetrating pressure-transmitting media were used. Different pressure-induced phenomena and deformation mechanisms (e.g.pressure-induced over-hydration, pressure-induced amorphization) are discussed. The influence of framework and extra-framework composition and of the presence of silanol defects on the response to the high pressure of MFI-type zeolites is discussed.
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11
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Tong F, Ji W, Li M, Zeng C, Zhang L. Investigation of the crystallization of zeolite A from hydrogels aged under high pressure. CrystEngComm 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ce00688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aging of hydrogels under high pressure can result in the formation of zeolites with small particle sizes and narrow particle size distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Tong
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing Tech University
- Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Weiwei Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing Tech University
- Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Ming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing Tech University
- Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Changfeng Zeng
- College of Mechanical and Power Engineering
- Nanjing Tech University
- Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Lixiong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing Tech University
- Nanjing 210009, PR China
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12
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Leardini L, Quartieri S, Martucci A, Vezzalini G, Dmitriev V. Compressibility of microporous materials with CHA topology: 2. ALPO-34. Z KRIST-CRYST MATER 2012. [DOI: 10.1524/zkri.2012.1477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The HP behavior of ALPO-34 as-synthesized was investigated by means of in-situ synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction, in the frame of a wider project aimed at understanding the role of the framework/extraframework content in the P-induced deformation mechanisms of natural and synthetic microporous materials with CHA framework topology. ALPO-34 compressibility under non-penetrating P-transmitting medium was determined up to 6.0 GPa and upon decompression to P
amb. After an initial large structure deformation at P < 0.4 GPa, a regular volume reduction was observed up to about 3 GPa. Above 3.1 GPa, an abrupt change in the behavior of all cell parameters was observed, accompanied by an evident decrease in compressibility. The isothermal Equation of State (EoS), refined with a II-order Birch–Murnaghan EoS from 0.4 to 3.1 GPa, yielded the following parameters: V
0 = 755(1) Å3, K
0 = 54(3) GPa. No complete X-ray amorphization was achieved up to the highest investigated P value. A complete reversibility of the unit cell parameters was observed upon P release. The compressibility behavior of ALPO-34 was compared with that of the other CHA-type zeolites. The volume reduction observed for natural chabazite, and for SAPO-34 and ALPO-34 as-synthesized, was 6.2%, 9.4%, and 6.0%, respectively. Notwithstanding the presence of morpholine molecules, as a structure directing agent, in the two as-synthesized phases, they exhibited significantly different compressibility. This can be interpreted as due to the octahedral coordination of part of the ALPO-34 framework aluminum, leading to a more rigid framework compared to that of SAPO-34, which contains only tetrahedral aluminum.
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Spencer EC, Ross NL, Angel RJ. The high pressure behaviour of the 3D copper carbonate framework {[Cu(CO3)2](CH6N3)2}n. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2jm15206a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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14
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Helium penetrates into silica glass and reduces its compressibility. Nat Commun 2011; 2:345. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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15
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Jang YN, Kao CC, Vogt T, Lee Y. Anisotropic compression of a synthetic potassium aluminogermanate zeolite with gismondine topology. J SOLID STATE CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2010.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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16
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Local formulas of polygonal surfaces. J STRUCT CHEM+ 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s10947-009-0188-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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17
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Spencer EC, Angel RJ, Ross NL, Hanson BE, Howard JAK. Pressure-Induced Cooperative Bond Rearrangement in a Zinc Imidazolate Framework: A High-Pressure Single-Crystal X-Ray Diffraction Study. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:4022-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ja808531m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elinor C. Spencer
- Department of Geosciences and Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Ross J. Angel
- Department of Geosciences and Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Nancy L. Ross
- Department of Geosciences and Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Brian E. Hanson
- Department of Geosciences and Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Judith A. K. Howard
- Department of Geosciences and Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, and Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K
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