Sensorimotor synchronisation with higher metrical levels in music shortens perceived time

Music in the Air and in the Body: An Interoceptive System's Perspective on Musical Emotions, Awareness, and Time

Performing and perceiving music requires the integration of multimodal information, including sensations of one's own body. Research on musical engagement investigated emotional responses and the peripheral physiological activations involved, as well as bodily action tendencies, effects on time perception, and the role of awareness and focus of attention. The concept of interoception dedicates a central role to the insular cortex, as suggested by Craig and others, and offers a unifying framework for studying music as an activity that has always had a key role for individuals, groups, societies, with a strong bodily component. Chances and challenges of an interoceptive perspective on music are discussed.

The influence of tonality, tempo, and musical sophistication on the listener's time-duration estimates

Music listening affects time perception, with previous studies suggesting that a variety of factors may influence this: musical, individual, and environmental. Two experiments investigated the effect of musical factors (tonality and musical tempo) and individual factors (a listener's level of musical sophistication) on subjective estimates of duration. Participants estimated the duration of different versions of newly composed instrumental music stimuli under retrospective and prospective conditions. Stimuli varied in tempo (90-120 bpm) and tonality (tonal-atonal), in a 2 × 2 factorial design, while other musical parameters remained constant. Estimates were made using written estimates of minutes and seconds in Experiment 1, and the reproduction method in Experiment 2. Two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) showed no main effect of tonality on estimates and no significant interactions between tempo and tonality, under any condition. Musical tempo significantly affected estimates, with the faster tempo leading to longer estimates, but only in the prospective condition, and with the use of the reproduction method. Correlation matrices using the Pearson correlation coefficient found no correlation between musical sophistication scores (measured using the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index [Gold-MSI]) and verbal or reproduction estimates. In conclusion, together with the existing literature, findings suggest that (1) changes in tonality, without further changes in rhythm, metre, or melodic contour, do not significantly affect estimates; (2) small changes in musical tempo influence only prospective reproduction estimates, with larger tempo differences or longer stimuli being needed to cause changes in retrospective estimates; (3) participants' level of musical sophistication does not impact estimates of musical duration; and (4) empirical research on music listening and subjective time must consider potential method-dependent results.

Tapping to drumbeats in an online experiment changes our perception of time and expressiveness

Bodily movements along with music, such as tapping, are not only very frequent, but may also have a profound impact on our perception of time and emotions. The current study adopted an online tapping paradigm to investigate participants' time experiences and expressiveness judgements when they tapped and did not tap to a series of drumming performances that varied in tempo and rhythmic complexity. Participants were asked to judge durations, passage of time (PoT), and the expressiveness of the performances in two conditions: (1) Observing only, (2) Observing and tapping regularly to the perceived beats. Results show that tapping trials passed subjectively faster and were partially (in slow- and medium-tempo conditions) perceived shorter compared to the observing-only trials. Increases in musical tempo (in tapping trials) and in complexity led to faster PoT, potentially due to distracted attentional resources for the timing task. Participants' musical training modulated the effects of complexity on the judgments of expressiveness. In addition, increases in tapping speed led to duration overestimation among the less musically trained participants. Taken together, tapping to music may have altered the internal clock speed, affecting the temporal units accumulated in the pacemaker-counter model.

Spontaneous motor tempo over the course of a week: the role of the time of the day, chronotype, and arousal

The spontaneous motor tempo (SMT) or internal tempo describes the natural pace of predictive and emergent movements such as walking or hand clapping. One of the main research interests in the study of the spontaneous motor tempo relates to factors affecting its pace. Previous studies suggest an influence of the circadian rhythm (i.e., 24-h cycle of the biological clock), physiological arousal changes, and potentially also musical experience. This study aimed at investigating these effects in participants' everyday life by measuring their SMT four times a day over seven consecutive days, using an experience sampling method. The pace of the SMT was assessed with a finger-tapping paradigm in a self-developed web application. Measured as the inter-tap interval, the overall mean SMT was 650 ms (SD = 253 ms). Using multi-level modelling (MLM), results show that the pace of the SMT sped up over the course of the day, and that this effect depended on the participants' chronotype, since participants tending towards morning type were faster in the morning compared to participants tending towards evening type. During the day, the pace of the SMT of morning types stayed relatively constant, whereas it became faster for evening-type participants. Furthermore, higher arousal in participants led to a faster pace of the SMT. Musical sophistication did not influence the SMT. These results indicate that the circadian rhythm influences the internal tempo, since the pace of SMT is not only dependent on the time of the day, but also on the individual entrainment to the 24-h cycle (chronotype).

Studying rhythm processing in speech through the lens of auditory-motor synchronization

Continuous speech is organized into a hierarchy of rhythms. Accurate processing of this rhythmic hierarchy through the interactions of auditory and motor systems is fundamental to speech perception and production. In this mini-review, we aim to evaluate the implementation of behavioral auditory-motor synchronization paradigms when studying rhythm processing in speech. First, we present an overview of the classic finger-tapping paradigm and its application in revealing differences in auditory-motor synchronization between the typical and clinical populations. Next, we highlight key findings on rhythm hierarchy processing in speech and non-speech stimuli from finger-tapping studies. Following this, we discuss the potential caveats of the finger-tapping paradigm and propose the speech-speech synchronization (SSS) task as a promising tool for future studies. Overall, we seek to raise interest in developing new methods to shed light on the neural mechanisms of speech processing.

Anticipatory Awareness and Actual Handwriting Performance Measures among Adolescents with Deficient Executive Functions

This secondary analysis explores differences and correlations between handwriting anticipatory awareness (time estimation, expected performance, and expected difficulty) before a paragraph copying task and actual performance time and legibility among adolescents with executive function deficits (EFD) versus neurotypical adolescents. Eighty-one adolescents (10–18 years old; 41 with EFD and daily functioning difficulties as per parent reports) estimated their time, expected performance, and expected difficulty before the paragraph copying task using the Self-Awareness of Performance Questionnaire (SAP-Q). Time duration was assessed using the Computerized Penmanship Evaluation Tool (ComPET) software, and legibility was scored using the Handwriting Legibility Scale (HLS). Significant between-group differences were found in actual time duration (ComPET), HLS total score and legibility components, and three SAP-Q questions. Both groups estimated significantly more performance time than their actual performance duration. The adolescents with EFD underestimated their performance before the handwriting task. Significant correlations were found between actual performance, anticipatory awareness, and Executive Function (EF) in both groups. Their performance predictions were significantly correlated with their EF and product’s legibility. The results highlight the potential relationships between anticipatory awareness and actual handwriting performance (time duration and legibility) of adolescents with and without EFD. Further studies may analyze the benefits of focusing on both EF and anticipatory awareness for handwriting improvement among populations with EF deficits.

Interpersonal sensorimotor communication shapes intrapersonal coordination in a musical ensemble

Social behaviors rely on the coordination of multiple effectors within one's own body as well as between the interacting bodies. However, little is known about how coupling at the interpersonal level impacts coordination among body parts at the intrapersonal level, especially in ecological, complex, situations. Here, we perturbed interpersonal sensorimotor communication in violin players of an orchestra and investigated how this impacted musicians' intrapersonal movements coordination. More precisely, first section violinists were asked to turn their back to the conductor and to face the second section of violinists, who still faced the conductor. Motion capture of head and bow kinematics showed that altering the usual interpersonal coupling scheme increased intrapersonal coordination. Our perturbation also induced smaller yet more complex head movements, which spanned multiple, faster timescales that closely matched the metrical levels of the musical score. Importantly, perturbation differentially increased intrapersonal coordination across these timescales. We interpret this behavioral shift as a sensorimotor strategy that exploits periodical movements to effectively tune sensory processing in time and allows coping with the disruption in the interpersonal coupling scheme. As such, head movements, which are usually deemed to fulfill communicative functions, may possibly be adapted to help regulate own performance in time.

The influence of different musical modes and tempi on time perception

Studies involving the interaction between musical mode and tempo on time perception have been carried out through comparisons between a single major mode and a single minor mode, presented in different tempi. However, classifying the modes only into major and minor has not been considered sufficient. The purpose of this study was to verify the influence of the musical mode and tempo interaction on time perception analyzing the effect of different modes performed in the slow, moderate and fast tempi. Fifty undergraduate students of both sexes individually listened to 12 musical excerpts (4 modes - Ionian, Mixolydian, Dorian and Aeolian - and 3 tempi - 72 bpm, 114 bpm, and 184 bpm), one excerpt at a time. After each excerpt, the participants performed a time-reproduction task, in which they had to press a button (beginning of the task), recal the duration of each excerpt and press a button again (end of the task). Results showed no interaction between mode and tempi and no differences between musical modes, regardless of tempo. However, regardless of the mode, excerpts in slow tempo was judged shorter than in moderate and fast tempi, respectively, and excerpts in moderate tempo was judged shorter than excerpts in fast tempo. These results can contribute to understanding the psychological processes of attention, memory and expectancy related to the perception of time in music listening situations.

Time perception in film is modulated by sensory modality and arousal

Considerable research has shown that the perception of time can be distorted subjectively, but little empirical work has examined what factors affect time perception in film, a naturalistic multimodal stimulus. Here, we explore the effect of sensory modality, arousal, and valence on how participants estimate durations in film. Using behavioral ratings combined with pupillometry in a within-participants design, we analyzed responses to and duration estimates of film clips in three experimental conditions: audiovisual (containing music and sound effects), visual (without music and sound effects), and auditory (music and sound effects without a visual scene). Participants viewed clips from little-known nature documentaries, fiction, animation, and experimental films. They were asked to judge clip duration and to report subjective arousal and valence, as their pupil sizes were recorded. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Results reveal duration estimates varied between experimental conditions. Clip durations were judged to be shorter than actual durations in all three conditions, with visual-only clips perceived as longer (i.e., less distorted in time) than auditory-only and audiovisual clips. High levels of Composite Arousal (an average of self-reported arousal and pupil size changes) were correlated with longer (more accurate) estimates of duration, particularly in the audiovisual modality. This effect may reflect stimulus complexity or greater cognitive engagement. Increased ratings of valence were correlated with longer estimates of duration. The use of naturalistic, complex stimuli such as film can enhance our understanding of the psychology of time perception.

Time Perception Deficits in Children and Adolescents with ADHD: A Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Prior studies have reported time perception impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD but the results were inconsistent.

METHOD

The current meta-analysis reviews 27 empirical studies published in English after year 2000 that compared time perception competence among children and adolescents with and without ADHD.

RESULTS

Results from 1620 participants with ADHD and 1249 healthy controls showed significant timing deficits in ADHD. Children/adolescents with ADHD perceived time less accurately (Hedges' g > 0.40), less precisely (Hedges' g = 0.66) and had higher tendency to overestimate time than their healthy counterparts. Moderator analyses indicated that the discrepancy of time perception between groups was not affected by the type of timing tasks nor the modality of stimuli used in the tasks. Nonetheless, results were moderated by age and gender.

CONCLUSION

These findings may update current understanding of the underlying neuropsychological deficits in ADHD and provide insight for future research in clinical assessments and treatments for ADHD.

Music and Time Perception in Audiovisuals: Arousing Soundtracks Lead to Time Overestimation No Matter Their Emotional Valence

One of the most tangible effects of music is its ability to alter our perception of time. Research on waiting times and time estimation of musical excerpts has attested its veritable effects. Nevertheless, there exist contrasting results regarding several musical features’ influence on time perception. When considering emotional valence and arousal, there is some evidence that positive affect music fosters time underestimation, whereas negative affect music leads to overestimation. Instead, contrasting results exist with regard to arousal. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge, a systematic investigation has not yet been conducted within the audiovisual domain, wherein music might improve the interaction between the user and the audiovisual media by shaping the recipients’ time perception. Through the current between-subjects online experiment (n = 565), we sought to analyze the influence that four soundtracks (happy, relaxing, sad, scary), differing in valence and arousal, exerted on the time estimation of a short movie, as compared to a no-music condition. The results reveal that (1) the mere presence of music led to time overestimation as opposed to the absence of music, (2) the soundtracks that were perceived as more arousing (i.e., happy and scary) led to time overestimation. The findings are discussed in terms of psychological and phenomenological models of time perception.

Rhythmic abilities in humans and non-human animals: a review and recommendations from a methodological perspective

Rhythmic behaviour is ubiquitous in both human and non-human animals, but it is unclear whether the cognitive mechanisms underlying the specific rhythmic behaviours observed in different species are related. Laboratory experiments combined with highly controlled stimuli and tasks can be very effective in probing the cognitive architecture underlying rhythmic abilities. Rhythmic abilities have been examined in the laboratory with explicit and implicit perception tasks, and with production tasks, such as sensorimotor synchronization, with stimuli ranging from isochronous sequences of artificial sounds to human music. Here, we provide an overview of experimental findings on rhythmic abilities in human and non-human animals, while critically considering the wide variety of paradigms used. We identify several gaps in what is known about rhythmic abilities. Many bird species have been tested on rhythm perception, but research on rhythm production abilities in the same birds is lacking. By contrast, research in mammals has primarily focused on rhythm production rather than perception. Many experiments also do not differentiate between possible components of rhythmic abilities, such as processing of single temporal intervals, rhythmic patterns, a regular beat or hierarchical metrical structures. For future research, we suggest a careful choice of paradigm to aid cross-species comparisons, and a critical consideration of the multifaceted abilities that underlie rhythmic behaviour. This article is part of the theme issue 'Synchrony and rhythm interaction: from the brain to behavioural ecology'.

Spatial Connectivity and Temporal Dynamic Functional Network Connectivity of Musical Emotions Evoked by Dynamically Changing Tempo

Music tempo is closely connected to listeners' musical emotion and multifunctional neural activities. Music with increasing tempo evokes higher emotional responses and music with decreasing tempo enhances relaxation. However, the neural substrate of emotion evoked by dynamically changing tempo is still unclear. To investigate the spatial connectivity and temporal dynamic functional network connectivity (dFNC) of musical emotion evoked by dynamically changing tempo, we collected dynamic emotional ratings and conducted group independent component analysis (ICA), sliding time window correlations, and k-means clustering to assess the FNC of emotion evoked by music with decreasing tempo (180-65 bpm) and increasing tempo (60-180 bpm). Music with decreasing tempo (with more stable dynamic valences) evoked higher valence than increasing tempo both with stronger independent components (ICs) in the default mode network (DMN) and sensorimotor network (SMN). The dFNC analysis showed that with time-decreasing FNC across the whole brain, emotion evoked by decreasing music was associated with strong spatial connectivity within the DMN and SMN. Meanwhile, it was associated with strong FNC between the DMN-frontoparietal network (FPN) and DMN-cingulate-opercular network (CON). The paired t-test showed that music with a decreasing tempo evokes stronger activation of ICs within DMN and SMN than that with an increasing tempo, which indicated that faster music is more likely to enhance listeners' emotions with multifunctional brain activities even when the tempo is slowing down. With increasing FNC across the whole brain, music with an increasing tempo was associated with strong connectivity within FPN; time-decreasing connectivity was found within CON, SMN, VIS, and between CON and SMN, which explained its unstable valence during the dynamic valence rating. Overall, the FNC can help uncover the spatial and temporal neural substrates of musical emotions evoked by dynamically changing tempi.

Spontaneous Motor Tempo: Investigating Psychological, Chronobiological, and Demographic Factors in a Large-Scale Online Tapping Experiment

The spontaneous motor tempo (SMT) describes the pace of regular and repeated movements such as hand clapping or walking. It is typically measured by letting people tap with their index finger at a pace that feels most natural and comfortable to them. A number of factors have been suggested to influence the SMT, such as age, time of the day, arousal, and potentially musical experience. This study aimed at investigating the effects of these factors in a combined and out-of-the-lab context by implementing the finger-tapping paradigm in an online experiment using a self-developed web application. Due to statistical multimodality in the distribution of participants' SMT (N = 3,576), showing peaks at modes of around 250 ms, a Gaussian mixture model was applied that grouped participants into six clusters, ranging from Very Fast (M = 265 ms, SD = 74) to Very Slow (M = 1,757 ms, SD = 166). These SMT clusters differed in terms of age, suggesting that older participants had a slower SMT, and time of the day, showing that the earlier it was, the slower participants' SMT. While arousal did not differ between the SMT clusters, more aroused participants showed faster SMTs across all normalized SMT clusters. Effects of musical experience were inconclusive. With a large international sample, these results provide insights into factors influencing the SMT irrespective of cultural background, which can be seen as a window into human timing processes.

Tapping to hip-hop: Effects of cognitive load, arousal, and musical meter on time experiences

Experiences of time vary intra- and interindividually, depending on factors such as attentional resource allocation and arousal. Music as a temporal art that is structured by multiple temporal layers is ideal for investigating human time experiences. The current study used examples of hip-hop music that varied in arousal but were constant in tempo. Participants judged the passage of time to be quicker when cognitive load was high in a dual-task condition, and perceived duration to be shorter when performing a concurrent motor task (tapping along with the music). Perceived musical arousal did not affect subjective time. Attending to a higher metrical level by tapping with half notes resulted in shorter duration estimates and a quicker passage of time, compared to tapping with eighth notes of the same music. Results were not influenced by spontaneous motor tempo, musical expertise, preference or familiarity with the music. Taken together, these findings indicate consistent effects of cognitive load and attention to meter on time experiences.