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Silver BD, Willett CG, Maher KA, Wang D, Deal RB. Differences in transcription initiation directionality underlie distinctions between plants and animals in chromatin modification patterns at genes and cis-regulatory elements. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2024; 14:jkae016. [PMID: 38253712 PMCID: PMC10917500 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkae016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Transcriptional initiation is among the first regulated steps controlling eukaryotic gene expression. High-throughput profiling of fungal and animal genomes has revealed that RNA Polymerase II often initiates transcription in both directions at the promoter transcription start site, but generally only elongates productively into the gene body. Additionally, Pol II can initiate transcription in both directions at cis-regulatory elements such as enhancers. These bidirectional RNA Polymerase II initiation events can be observed directly with methods that capture nascent transcripts, and they are also revealed indirectly by the presence of transcription-associated histone modifications on both sides of the transcription start site or cis-regulatory elements. Previous studies have shown that nascent RNAs and transcription-associated histone modifications in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana accumulate mainly in the gene body, suggesting that transcription does not initiate widely in the upstream direction from genes in this plant. We compared transcription-associated histone modifications and nascent transcripts at both transcription start sites and cis-regulatory elements in A. thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, and Homo sapiens. Our results provide evidence for mostly unidirectional RNA Polymerase II initiation at both promoters and gene-proximal cis-regulatory elements of A. thaliana, whereas bidirectional transcription initiation is observed widely at promoters in both D. melanogaster and H. sapiens, as well as cis-regulatory elements in Drosophila. Furthermore, the distribution of transcription-associated histone modifications around transcription start sites in the Oryza sativa (rice) and Glycine max (soybean) genomes suggests that unidirectional transcription initiation is the norm in these genomes as well. These results suggest that there are fundamental differences in transcriptional initiation directionality between flowering plant and metazoan genomes, which are manifested as distinct patterns of chromatin modifications around RNA polymerase initiation sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna D Silver
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Courtney G Willett
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Kelsey A Maher
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell, and Developmental Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Computational Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Dongxue Wang
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Roger B Deal
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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2
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Tremblay BJM, Santini CP, Cheng Y, Zhang X, Rosa S, Qüesta JI. Interplay between coding and non-coding regulation drives the Arabidopsis seed-to-seedling transition. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1724. [PMID: 38409232 PMCID: PMC10897432 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Translation of seed stored mRNAs is essential to trigger germination. However, when RNAPII re-engages RNA synthesis during the seed-to-seedling transition has remained in question. Combining csRNA-seq, ATAC-seq and smFISH in Arabidopsis thaliana we demonstrate that active transcription initiation is detectable during the entire germination process. Features of non-coding regulation such as dynamic changes in chromatin accessible regions, antisense transcription, as well as bidirectional non-coding promoters are widespread throughout the Arabidopsis genome. We show that sensitivity to exogenous ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) during germination depends on proximal promoter accessibility at ABA-responsive genes. Moreover, we provide genetic validation of the existence of divergent transcription in plants. Our results reveal that active enhancer elements are transcribed producing non-coding enhancer RNAs (eRNAs) as widely documented in metazoans. In sum, this study defining the extent and role of coding and non-coding transcription during key stages of germination expands our understanding of transcriptional mechanisms underlying plant developmental transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J M Tremblay
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina P Santini
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yajiao Cheng
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xue Zhang
- Plant Biology Department, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stefanie Rosa
- Plant Biology Department, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julia I Qüesta
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG), CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
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3
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Silver BD, Willett CG, Maher KA, Wang D, Deal RB. Differences in transcription initiation directionality underlie distinctions between plants and animals in chromatin modification patterns at genes and cis-regulatory elements. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.03.565513. [PMID: 37961418 PMCID: PMC10635121 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.03.565513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Transcriptional initiation is among the first regulated steps controlling eukaryotic gene expression. High-throughput profiling of fungal and animal genomes has revealed that RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) often initiates transcription in both directions at the promoter transcription start site (TSS), but generally only elongates productively into the gene body. Additionally, Pol II can initiate transcription in both directions at cis-regulatory elements (CREs) such as enhancers. These bidirectional Pol II initiation events can be observed directly with methods that capture nascent transcripts, and they are also revealed indirectly by the presence of transcription-associated histone modifications on both sides of the TSS or CRE. Previous studies have shown that nascent RNAs and transcription-associated histone modifications in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana accumulate mainly in the gene body, suggesting that transcription does not initiate widely in the upstream direction from genes in this plant. We compared transcription-associated histone modifications and nascent transcripts at both TSSs and CREs in Arabidopsis thaliana, Drosophila melanogaster, and Homo sapiens. Our results provide evidence for mostly unidirectional Pol II initiation at both promoters and gene-proximal CREs of Arabidopsis thaliana, whereas bidirectional transcription initiation is observed widely at promoters in both Drosophila melanogaster and Homo sapiens, as well as CREs in Drosophila. Furthermore, the distribution of transcription-associated histone modifications around TSSs in the Oryza sativa (rice) and Glycine max (soybean) genomes suggests that unidirectional transcription initiation is the norm in these genomes as well. These results suggest that there are fundamental differences in transcriptional initiation directionality between flowering plant and metazoan genomes, which are manifested as distinct patterns of chromatin modifications around RNA polymerase initiation sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna D. Silver
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Courtney G. Willett
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Kelsey A. Maher
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell, and Developmental Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Dongxue Wang
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
| | - Roger B. Deal
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 USA
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4
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Chen YH, Zhang X, Attarian D, Kraus VB. Synergistic roles of CBX4 chromo and SIM domains in regulating senescence of primary human osteoarthritic chondrocytes. Arthritis Res Ther 2023; 25:197. [PMID: 37828576 PMCID: PMC10568837 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-023-03183-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cellular senescence is a critical factor contributing to osteoarthritis (OA). Overexpression of chromobox homolog 4 (CBX4) in a mouse system was demonstrated to alleviate post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) by reducing cellular senescence. Additionally, replicative cellular senescence of WI-38 fibroblasts can be attenuated by CBX4. However, the mechanisms underlying this senomorphic function of CBX4 are not fully understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of CBX4 in cellular senescence in human primary osteoarthritic chondrocytes and to identify the functional domains of CBX4 necessary for its function in modulating senescence. METHODS Chondrocytes, isolated from 6 individuals undergoing total knee replacement for OA, were transduced with wild-type CBX4, mutant CBX4, and control lentiviral constructs. Senescence-related phenotypic outcomes included the following: multiple flow cytometry-measured markers (p16INK4A, senescence-associated β-galactosidase [SA-β-gal] activity and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 [DPP4], and proliferation marker EdU), multiplex ELISA-measured markers in chondrocyte culture media (senescence-associated secretory phenotypes [SASPs], including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9), and PCR array-evaluated senescence-related genes. RESULTS Compared with control, CBX4 overexpression in OA chondrocytes decreased DPP4 expression and SASP secretion and increased chondrocyte proliferation confirming CBX4 senomorphic effects on primary human chondrocytes. Point mutations of the chromodomain domain (CDM, involved in chromatin modification) alone were sufficient to partially block the senomorphic activity of CBX4 (p16INK4A and DPP4 increased, and EdU decreased) but had minimal effect on SASP secretion. Although having no effect on p16INK4A, DPP4, and EdU, deletion of two small-ubiquitin-like-modifier-interaction motifs (CBX4 ΔSIMs) led to increased SASP secretion (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-8). The combination CBX4 CDMΔSIMs altered all these measures adversely and to a greater degree than the single domain mutants. Deletion of the C-terminal (CBX4 ΔC-box) involved with transcriptional silencing of polycomb group proteins increased IL-1β slightly but significantly but altered none of the other senescence outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS CBX4 has a senomorphic effect on human osteoarthritic chondrocytes. CDM is critical for CBX4-mediated regulation of senescence. The SIMs are supportive but not indispensable for CBX4 senomorphic function while the C-box is dispensable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsiu Chen
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, 300 N Duke St, Durham, NC, 27701, USA
- Division of Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Xin Zhang
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, 300 N Duke St, Durham, NC, 27701, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - David Attarian
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Virginia Byers Kraus
- Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University, 300 N Duke St, Durham, NC, 27701, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
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Sexton T, Platania A, Erb C, Barbieri M, Molcrette B, Grandgirard E, de Kort M, Meabum K, Taylor T, Shchuka V, Kocanova S, Oliveira G, Mitchell J, Soutoglou E, Lenstra T, Molina N, Papantonis A, Bystricky K. Competition between transcription and loop extrusion modulates promoter and enhancer dynamics. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3164817. [PMID: 37645793 PMCID: PMC10462181 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3164817/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
The spatiotemporal configuration of genes with distal regulatory elements, and the impact of chromatin mobility on transcription, remain unclear. Loop extrusion is an attractive model for bringing genetic elements together, but how this functionally interacts with transcription is also largely unknown. We combine live tracking of genomic loci and nascent transcripts with molecular dynamics simulations to assess the spatiotemporal arrangement of the Sox2 gene and its enhancer, in response to a battery of perturbations. We find a close link between chromatin mobility and transcriptional status: active elements display more constrained mobility, consistent with confinement within specialized nuclear sites, and alterations in enhancer mobility distinguish poised from transcribing alleles. Strikingly, we find that whereas loop extrusion and transcription factor-mediated clustering contribute to promoter-enhancer proximity, they have antagonistic effects on chromatin dynamics. This provides an experimental framework for the underappreciated role of chromatin dynamics in genome regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Sexton
- IGBMC (Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology)
| | | | - Cathie Erb
- IGBMC (Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Nacho Molina
- IGBMC (Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology)
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Marquardt S, Petrillo E, Manavella PA. Cotranscriptional RNA processing and modification in plants. THE PLANT CELL 2023; 35:1654-1670. [PMID: 36259932 PMCID: PMC10226594 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The activities of RNA polymerases shape the epigenetic landscape of genomes with profound consequences for genome integrity and gene expression. A fundamental event during the regulation of eukaryotic gene expression is the coordination between transcription and RNA processing. Most primary RNAs mature through various RNA processing and modification events to become fully functional. While pioneering results positioned RNA maturation steps after transcription ends, the coupling between the maturation of diverse RNA species and their transcription is becoming increasingly evident in plants. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the crosstalk between RNA Polymerase II, IV, and V transcription and nascent RNA processing of both coding and noncoding RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Marquardt
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ezequiel Petrillo
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE-CONICET-UBA), Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
| | - Pablo A Manavella
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral (CONICET-UNL), Cátedra de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
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7
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Platania A, Erb C, Barbieri M, Molcrette B, Grandgirard E, de Kort MAC, Meaburn K, Taylor T, Shchuka VM, Kocanova S, Oliveira GM, Mitchell JA, Soutoglou E, Lenstra TL, Molina N, Papantonis A, Bystricky K, Sexton T. Competition between transcription and loop extrusion modulates promoter and enhancer dynamics. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.25.538222. [PMID: 37162887 PMCID: PMC10168261 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.25.538222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The spatiotemporal configuration of genes with distal regulatory elements, and the impact of chromatin mobility on transcription, remain unclear. Loop extrusion is an attractive model for bringing genetic elements together, but how this functionally interacts with transcription is also largely unknown. We combine live tracking of genomic loci and nascent transcripts with molecular dynamics simulations to assess the 4D arrangement of the Sox2 gene and its enhancer, in response to a battery of perturbations. We find that alterations in chromatin mobility, not promoter-enhancer distance, is more informative about transcriptional status. Active elements display more constrained mobility, consistent with confinement within specialized nuclear sites, and alterations in enhancer mobility distinguish poised from transcribing alleles. Strikingly, we find that whereas loop extrusion and transcription factor-mediated clustering contribute to promoter-enhancer proximity, they have antagonistic effects on chromatin dynamics. This provides an experimental framework for the underappreciated role of chromatin dynamics in genome regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeliki Platania
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Cathie Erb
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Mariano Barbieri
- Translational Epigenetics Group, Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bastien Molcrette
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Erwan Grandgirard
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Marit AC de Kort
- Division of Gene Regulation, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Oncode Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Karen Meaburn
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, Sussex University, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Tiegh Taylor
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M55 3G5, Canada
| | - Virlana M Shchuka
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M55 3G5, Canada
| | - Silvia Kocanova
- Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology unit (MCD), Centre de Biologie Integrative (CBI) University of Toulouse Paul Sabatier, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - Guilherme Monteiro Oliveira
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Jennifer A Mitchell
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M55 3G5, Canada
| | - Evi Soutoglou
- Genome Damage and Stability Centre, Sussex University, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Tineke L Lenstra
- Division of Gene Regulation, the Netherlands Cancer Institute, Oncode Institute, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nacho Molina
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
| | - Argyris Papantonis
- Translational Epigenetics Group, Institute of Pathology, University Medical Centre Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Bystricky
- Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology unit (MCD), Centre de Biologie Integrative (CBI) University of Toulouse Paul Sabatier, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF)
| | - Tom Sexton
- Department of Functional Genomics and Cancer, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology (IGBMC), UMR7104, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, U1258, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, University of Strasbourg, 6704 Illkirch, France
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Novačić A, Menéndez D, Ljubas J, Barbarić S, Stutz F, Soudet J, Stuparević I. Antisense non-coding transcription represses the PHO5 model gene at the level of promoter chromatin structure. PLoS Genet 2022; 18:e1010432. [PMID: 36215302 PMCID: PMC9584416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Pervasive transcription of eukaryotic genomes generates non-coding transcripts with regulatory potential. We examined the effects of non-coding antisense transcription on the regulation of expression of the yeast PHO5 gene, a paradigmatic case for gene regulation through promoter chromatin remodeling. A negative role for antisense transcription at the PHO5 gene locus was demonstrated by leveraging the level of overlapping antisense transcription through specific mutant backgrounds, expression from a strong promoter in cis, and use of the CRISPRi system. Furthermore, we showed that enhanced elongation of PHO5 antisense leads to a more repressive chromatin conformation at the PHO5 gene promoter, which is more slowly remodeled upon gene induction. The negative effect of antisense transcription on PHO5 gene transcription is mitigated upon inactivation of the histone deacetylase Rpd3, showing that PHO5 antisense RNA acts via histone deacetylation. This regulatory pathway leads to Rpd3-dependent decreased recruitment of the RSC chromatin remodeling complex to the PHO5 gene promoter upon induction of antisense transcription. Overall, the data in this work reveal an additional level in the complex regulatory mechanism of PHO5 gene expression by showing antisense transcription-mediated repression at the level of promoter chromatin structure remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Novačić
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dario Menéndez
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jurica Ljubas
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Slobodan Barbarić
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Françoise Stutz
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Julien Soudet
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail: (J.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Igor Stuparević
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- * E-mail: (J.S.); (I.S.)
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