Patient reported outcome in posttraumatic pituitary deficiency: results from The Danish National Study on posttraumatic hypopituitarism

Long-term pituitary function and functional and patient-reported outcomes in severe acquired brain injury

OBJECTIVE

Assessment of posttraumatic hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunctions is expected to be the most relevant assessment to offer patients with severe intracranial affection. In this study, we aim to investigate the prevalence of hypopituitarism in patients with severe acquired traumatic brain injury (TBI) compared with nontraumatic brain injury (NTBI) and to relate pituitary insufficiency to functional and patient-reported outcomes.

DESIGN

This is a prospective study.

METHODS

We included patients admitted for inpatient neurorehabilitation after severe TBI (N = 42) and NTBI (N = 18). The patients underwent a pituitary function assessment at a mean of 2.4 years after the injury. Functional outcome was assessed by using Functional Independence Measure and Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (both 1 year after discharge from neurorehabilitation) and patient-reported outcome was assessed by using Multiple Fatigue Inventory-20 and EQ-5D-3L.

RESULTS

Hypopituitarism was reported in 10/42 (24%) patients with TBI and 7/18 (39%) patients with NTBI (P = .23). Insufficiencies affected 1 axis in 14/17 (82%) patients (13 hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and 1 growth hormone [GH] deficiency) and 2 axes in 3/17 (18%) patients (1 hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and GH deficiency, and 2 hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and arginin vasopressin deficiency). None had central hypoadrenalism or central hypothyroidism. In patients with both TBI and NTBI, pituitary status was unrelated to functioning and ability scores at 1 year and to patient-reported outcome scores at a mean of 2.4 years after the injury.

CONCLUSION

Patients with severe acquired brain injury may develop long-term hypothalamus-pituitary insufficiency, with an equal occurrence in patients with TBI and NTBI. In both types of patients, mainly isolated deficiencies, most commonly affecting the gonadal axis, were seen. Insufficiencies were unrelated to functional outcomes and patient-reported outcomes, probably reflecting the complexity and heterogeneous manifestations in both patient groups.

Prevalence of hypopituitarism and quality of life in survivors of post-traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND

Hypopituitarism is a recognized sequela of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and may worsen the quality of life (QoL) in survivors.

AIMS

To assess the prevalence of post-traumatic hypopituitarism (PTHP) and growth hormone deficiency (GHD), and determine their correlation with QoL.

METHODS

Survivors of moderate to severe TBI were recruited from two Algerian centres. At 3 and 12 months, pituitary function was evaluated using insulin tolerance test (ITT), QoL by growth hormone deficiency in adults' questionnaire (QoL-AGHDA), and 36-item short-form (SF-36) health survey.

RESULTS

Of 133 (M: 128; F: 5) patients aged 18-65 years, PTHP and GHD were present at 3 and 12 months in 59 (44.4%) and 23 (17.29%), 41/116 (35.3%) and 18 (15.5%). Thirteen patients with GHD at 3 months tested normally at 12 months, while 9 had become GHD at 12 months. At 3 and 12 months, peak cortisol was < 500 nmol/L) in 39 (29.3%) and 29 (25%) patients, but <300 nmol/L in only five and seven. Prevalence for gonadotrophin deficiency was 6.8/8.6%, hypo- and hyperprolactinaemia 6.8/3.8% and 5.2/8.6%, and thyrotrophin deficiency 1.5/0.9%. Mean scores for QoL-AGHDA were higher in patients with PTHP at 3 and 12 months: 7.07 vs 3.62 (P = .001) and in patients with GHD at 12 months: 8.72 vs 4.09 (P = .015). Mean SF-36 scores were significantly lower for PTHP at 3 months.

CONCLUSION

Prevalence of PTHP and GHD changes with time. AGHDA measures QoL in GHD more specifically than SF-36. Full pituitary evaluation and QoL-AGHDA 12 months after TBI are recommended.

The history of pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury

PURPOSE

To estimate the total number of articles on traumatic brain injury (TBI)-related hypopituitarism and patients (including children and adolescents) with such disorder that were published until now, particularly after the author's review published on April 2000.

METHODS

Review of the literature retrievable on PubMed.

RESULTS

TBI-related hypopituitarism accounts for 7.2% of the whole literature on hypopituitarism published during the 18 years and half between May 2000 and October 2018. As a result, the total number of patients with TBI-related hypopituitarism now approximates 2200. A number of patients, both adults and children, continue to be published as case reports. Articles, including reviews and guidelines, have been published in national languages in order to maximize locally the information on TBI-related hypopituitarism. TBI-related hypopituitarism has been also studied in animals (rodents, cats and dogs).

CONCLUSIONS

The interest for the damage suffered by anterior pituitary as a result of TBI continues to remain high both in the adulthood and childhood.

Pituitary deficiency and precocious puberty after childhood severe traumatic brain injury: a long-term follow-up prospective study

Objectives Childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a public health issue. Our objectives were to determine the prevalence of permanent pituitary hormone deficiency and to detect the emergence of other pituitary dysfunctions or central precocious puberty several years after severe TBI. Design Follow-up at least 5 years post severe TBI of a prospective longitudinal study. Patients Overall, 66/87 children, who had endocrine evaluation 1 year post severe TBI, were included (24 with pituitary dysfunction 1 year post TBI). Main outcome measures In all children, the pituitary hormones basal levels were assessed at least 5 years post TBI. Growth hormone (GH) stimulation tests were performed 3-4 years post TBI in children with GH deficiency (GHD) 1 year post TBI and in all children with low height velocity (<-1 DS) or low IGF-1 (<-2 DS). Central precocious puberty (CPP) was confirmed by GnRH stimulation test. Results Overall, 61/66 children were followed up 7 (5-10) years post TBI (median; (range)); 17/61 children had GHD 1 year post TBI, and GHD was confirmed in 5/17 patients. For one boy, with normal pituitary function 1 year post TBI, GHD was diagnosed 6.5 years post TBI. 4/61 patients developed CPP, 5.7 (2.4-6.1) years post-TBI. Having a pituitary dysfunction 1 year post TBI was significantly associated with pituitary dysfunction or CPP more than 5 years post TBI. Conclusion Severe TBI in childhood can lead to permanent pituitary dysfunction; GHD and CPP may appear after many years. We recommend systematic hormonal assessment in children 1 year after severe TBI and a prolonged monitoring of growth and pubertal maturation. Recommendations should be elaborated for the families and treating physicians.

Pituitary dysfunction and association with fatigue in stroke and other acute brain injury

BACKGROUND

Poststroke fatigue (PSF) is a highly prevalent and debilitating condition. However, the etiology remains incompletely understood. Literature suggests the co-prevalence of pituitary dysfunction (PD) with stroke, and the question raises whether this could be a contributing factor to the development of PSF. This study reviews the prevalence of PD after stroke and other acquired brain injuries and its association with fatigue.

SUMMARY

We performed a bibliographic literature search of MEDLINE and EMBASE databases for English language studies on PD in adult patients with stroke, traumatic brain injury (TBI) or aneurysmatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). Forty-two articles were selected for review. Up to 82% of patients were found to have any degree of PD after stroke. Growth hormone deficiency was most commonly found. In aSAH and TBI, prevalences up to 49.3% were reported. However, data differed widely between studies, mostly due to methodological differences including the diagnostic methods used to define PD and the focus on the acute or chronic phase. Data on PD and outcome after stroke, aSAH and TBI are conflicting. No studies were found investigating the association between PD and PSF. Data on the association between PD and fatigue after aSAH and TBI were scarce and conflicting, and fatigue is rarely been investigated as a primary end point.

KEY MESSAGES

Data according to the prevalence of PD after stroke and other acquired brain injury suggest a high prevalence of PD after these conditions. However, the clinical relevance and especially the association with fatigue need to be established.

Chronic Hypopituitarism Associated with Increased Postconcussive Symptoms Is Prevalent after Blast-Induced Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

The most frequent injury sustained by US service members deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan is mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI), or concussion, by far most often caused by blast waves from improvised explosive devices or other explosive ordnance. TBI from all causes gives rise to chronic neuroendocrine disorders with an estimated prevalence of 25-50%. The current study expands upon our earlier finding that chronic pituitary gland dysfunction occurs with a similarly high frequency after blast-related concussions. We measured circulating hormone levels and accessed demographic and testing data from two groups of male veterans with hazardous duty experience in Iraq or Afghanistan. Veterans in the mTBI group had experienced one or more blast-related concussion. Members of the deployment control (DC) group encountered similar deployment conditions but had no history of blast-related mTBI. 12 of 39 (31%) of the mTBI participants and 3 of 20 (15%) veterans in the DC group screened positive for one or more neuroendocrine disorders. Positive screens for growth hormone deficiency occurred most often. Analysis of responses on self-report questionnaires revealed main effects of both mTBI and hypopituitarism on postconcussive and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Symptoms associated with pituitary dysfunction overlap considerably with those of PTSD. They include cognitive deficiencies, mood and anxiety disorders, sleep problems, diminished quality of life, deleterious changes in metabolism and body composition, and increased cardiovascular mortality. When such symptoms are due to hypopituitarism, they may be alleviated by hormone replacement. These findings suggest consideration of routine post-deployment neuroendocrine screening of service members and veterans who have experienced blast-related mTBI and are reporting postconcussive symptoms.

Chronic endocrine consequences of traumatic brain injury - what is the evidence?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health problem with potentially debilitating consequences for the individual. Hypopituitarism after TBI has received increasing attention over the past decade; development of the condition as a consequence of TBI was previously hardly mentioned in textbooks on the subject. Hypopituitarism has been reported in more than 25% of patients with TBI and is now thought to be one of the most important causes of treatable morbidity in TBI survivors. However, most clinicians dealing with neuroendocrine diseases and TBI generally do not see such a high incidence of hypopituitarism. This disproportion is not clearly explained, but recent data indicate that diagnostic testing, which is designed for high-risk populations and not for a cohort of patients with, for example, de novo isolated growth hormone deficiency (the predominant finding in TBI), might have overestimated the true risk and disease burden of hypopituitarism. In this Opinion article, we discuss current recommendations for post-traumatic hypopituitarism in light of recent evidence.

[Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury: diagnostic and therapeutic issues]

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a well-known public health problem worldwide and is a leading cause of death and disability, particularly in young adults. Besides neurological and psychiatric issues, pituitary dysfunction can also occur after TBI, in the acute or chronic phase. The exact prevalence of post-traumatic hypopituitarism is difficult to assess due to the wide heterogeneity of published studies and bias in interpretation of hormonal test results in this specific population. Predictive factors for hypopituitarism have been proposed and are helpful for the screening. The pathophysiology of pituitary dysfunction after TBI is not well understood but the vascular hypothesis is privileged. Activation of pituitary stem/progenitor cells is probably involved in the recovery of pituitary functions. Those cells also play a role in the induction of pituitary tumors, highlighting their crucial place in pituitary conditions. This review updates the current data related to anterior pituitary dysfunction after TBI and discusses the bias and difficulties encountered in its diagnosis.

Symptoms of gonadal dysfunction are more predictive of hypopituitarism than nonspecific symptoms in screening for pituitary dysfunction following moderate or severe traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVE

The economic and logistic burden of screening for hypopituitarism following moderate/severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is considerable. A key recommendation in published guidelines is to prioritize for screening those patients with symptoms suggestive of pituitary dysfunction. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utility of targeted screening for hypopituitarism in long-term survivors after moderate/severe TBI using referrals on the basis of symptoms.

DESIGN

In group 1 (G1), consecutive, unselected patients were screened from the Irish National Neurosurgery Centre, whereas in group 2 (G2) patients were targeted based on the presence of symptoms suggestive of pituitary dysfunction.

PATIENTS

A total of 137 patients (113 male) were systematically screened (G1) and compared to 112 patients (77 male) referred for pituitary evaluation on the basis of suggestive symptoms (G2).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The rate of GH, ACTH, gonadotrophin (GT), TSH and ADH deficiency was compared among groups.

RESULTS

Patients referred with menstrual dysfunction had more GH (50% vs 11%, P = 0·001), ACTH (60% vs 14%, P < 0·0001), GT (90% vs 16%, P < 0·0001) deficiency and any pituitary hormone deficit (80% vs 33%, P = 0·003) than G1. Men with symptoms of hypogonadism had more GH (33% vs 11%, P = 0·003), GT (58% vs 16%, P < 0·0001) and TSH (16% vs 1%, P = 0·03) deficiency than G1. Patients with nonspecific symptoms were no more likely to have hypopituitarism than those consecutively screened.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptoms of hypogonadism are sufficiently predictive of hypopituitarism to justify screening for hypopituitarism after moderate/severe TBI. Nonspecific symptoms of hypopituitarism are no more predictive than unselected screening.

Hypopituitarism in Traumatic Brain Injury-A Critical Note

While hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury (TBI) was previously considered rare, it is now thought to be a major cause of treatable morbidity among TBI survivors. Consequently, recommendations for assessment of pituitary function and replacement in TBI were recently introduced. Given the high incidence of TBI with more than 100 pr. 100,000 inhabitants, TBI would be by far the most common cause of hypopituitarism if the recently reported prevalence rates hold true. The disproportion between this proposed incidence and the occasional cases of post-TBI hypopituitarism in clinical practice justifies reflection as to whether hypopituitarism has been unrecognized in TBI patients or whether diagnostic testing designed for high risk populations such as patients with obvious pituitary pathology has overestimated the true risk and thereby the disease burden of hypopituitarism in TBI. The findings on mainly isolated deficiencies in TBI patients, and particularly isolated growth hormone (GH) deficiency, raise the question of the potential impact of methodological confounding, determined by variable test-retest reproducibility, appropriateness of cut-off values, importance of BMI stratified cut-offs, assay heterogeneity, pre-test probability of hypopituitarism and lack of proper individual laboratory controls as reference population. In this review, current recommendations are discussed in light of recent available evidence.

Addisonian Crisis after Missed Diagnosis of Posttraumatic Hypopituitarism

We report a case of a previously undiagnosed panhypopituitarism initially presenting as a full-blown Addisonian crisis with hypoglycemia, hyponatremia, hypotension and neuropsychological symptoms, more than 30 years after a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The patient also displayed clearly visible pathognomonic clinical signs of long-standing pituitary dysfunction. The case highlights the importance of being aware of endocrine sequelae even decades after serious TBI.