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Lough-Stevens M, Ghione CR, Urness M, Hobbs A, Sweeney CM, Dean MD. Male-derived copulatory plugs enhance implantation success in female Mus musculus. Biol Reprod 2021; 104:684-694. [PMID: 33355341 PMCID: PMC7962766 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioaa228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Among a wide diversity of sexually reproducing species, male ejaculates coagulate to form what has been termed a copulatory plug. A number of functions have been attributed to copulatory plugs, including the inhibition of female remating and the promotion of ejaculate movement. Here we demonstrate that copulatory plugs also influence the likelihood of implantation, which occurs roughly 4 days after copulation in mice. Using a bead transfer method to control for differences in ejaculate retention and fertilization rates, we show that implantation rates significantly drop among females mated to genetically engineered males incapable of forming plugs (because they lack functional transglutaminase 4, the main enzyme responsible for its formation). Surprisingly, this result does not correlate with differences in circulating progesterone levels among females, an important hormone involved in implantation. We discuss three models that connect male-derived copulatory plugs to implantation success, including the hypothesis that plugs contribute to a threshold amount of stimulation required for females to become receptive to implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Lough-Stevens
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Caleb R Ghione
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Matthew Urness
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Adelaide Hobbs
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Colleen M Sweeney
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Matthew D Dean
- Molecular and Computational Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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2
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Greville LJ, Pollock T, Faure PA, deCatanzaro D. Seasonal transfer and quantification of urinary estradiol in the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 286:113321. [PMID: 31733210 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.113321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Growing evidence shows that sex steroids not only act within the individual whose glands produce them; they can also act on proximate conspecifics. Previous studies show that exogenous 17β-estradiol (E2) can be absorbed both nasally and percutaneously, arriving in blood, neural, reproductive, and peripheral tissues. When male bats were injected with radiolabeled E2 (3H-E2) and housed with females during the mating season, radioactivity was reliably measured in the females' tissues. The present study was designed to compare E2 transfer from male to female bats at three time points in the annual reproductive cycle: spring (ovulation and fertilization), summer (maternal season), and autumn (mating season). Pairs of mature female bats were housed with a mature 3H-E2-treated male (50 μCi). Following 48 h of communal housing, radioactivity was measured in the tissues of female bats. Higher levels of radioactivity were present in the uterus and other tissues during the spring and autumn seasons compared to the summer season. We also measured natural levels of bioactive, unconjugated E2 in the urine of male bats using enzyme immunoassays, and found that it was present in all three seasons but at lower levels during the summer. Male-excreted E2 could transfer to females within the close confines of a roost, potentially influencing their reproductive physiology and behavior. These results suggest increased E2 transfer coincides with female reproduction, with urine as a likely vector. We suggest that sex steroid transfer among interacting individuals may explain several mammalian phenomena historically viewed as "pheromonal".
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas J Greville
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Paul A Faure
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada.
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3
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Goblet C, Lewis B, Jacobsen V, Jarboe M, Silva D, Penfold L, Newell-Fugate AE. Exposure of managed red river hogs (Potamochoerus porcus) to urine from males stimulates estrous cycling and modulates fecal sex steroid metabolites in males and females. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 285:113262. [PMID: 31454496 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.113262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
For unknown reasons, reproductive success varies among zoos in managed red river hogs. In response to urine exposure from novel conspecifics, we hypothesized that males with low libido would exhibit increased concentrations of testosterone metabolites and that acyclic and/or non-breeding females would be induced to cycle or cycle more regularly. Estrous cycle length and progesterone metabolites in same-sex housed females were compared prior to and following exposure to novel red river hog male urine. Male testosterone metabolites and female progesterone metabolites as well as estrous cycle length were compared among: 1) proven-breeder females and males; 2) non-breeding females newly paired with novel males; 3) non-breeding females and males exposed to urine from novel females and males. Fecal samples were collected 3-5 times per week for eight to 12 months, lyophilized, extracted, and assayed for progesterone and testosterone metabolites with validated enzyme immunoassays. Introduction of female urine resulted in an increased number of estrous cycles per female per month, and decreased luteal and increased follicular progesterone metabolites in females. Introduction of male urine resulted in an increase in testosterone metabolites in males. Average progesterone metabolites for pregnant proven-breeder females were more than double that for pregnant females newly paired to novel males. An interaction between season and treatment group, as well as the acyclicity of females from July through November irrespective of treatment group, suggest that season may confound and warrant judicious interpretation of the results. Additionally, females housed with pregnant females were either acyclic or did not carry their pregnancies to term, indicating that reproductive suppression may occur in females. In conclusion, urine may be a cost-effective and efficient means to manipulate estrous cycling in managed red river hogs. Furthermore, careful consideration of the number of females in a managed herd is recommended to avoid reproductive suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Goblet
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Bryce Lewis
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Victoria Jacobsen
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Monica Jarboe
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Dameriss Silva
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Linda Penfold
- South-East Zoo Alliance for Conservation & Reproduction, Yulee, FL 32097, USA
| | - Annie E Newell-Fugate
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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4
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Zipple MN, Roberts EK, Alberts SC, Beehner JC. Male-mediated prenatal loss: Functions and mechanisms. Evol Anthropol 2019; 28:114-125. [PMID: 30953577 PMCID: PMC6548597 DOI: 10.1002/evan.21776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Sexually selected infanticide has been the subject of intense empirical and theoretical study for decades; a related phenomenon, male-mediated prenatal loss, has received much less attention in evolutionary studies. Male-mediated prenatal loss occurs when inseminated or pregnant females terminate reproductive effort following exposure to a nonsire male, either through implantation failure or pregnancy termination. Male-mediated prenatal loss encompasses two sub-phenomena: sexually selected feticide and the Bruce effect. In this review, we provide a framework that explains the relationship between feticide and the Bruce effect and describes what is known about the proximate and ultimate mechanisms involved in each. Using a simple model, we demonstrate that male-mediated prenatal loss can provide greater reproductive benefits to males than infanticide. We therefore suggest that, compared to infanticide, male-mediated prenatal loss may be more prevalent in mammalian species and may have played a greater role in their social evolution than has previously been documented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eila K Roberts
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Susan C Alberts
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
- Institute of Primate Research, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jacinta C Beehner
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Pollock T, Greville LJ, Weaver RE, Radenovic M, deCatanzaro D. Bisphenol S modulates concentrations of bisphenol A and oestradiol in female and male mice. Xenobiotica 2018; 49:540-548. [DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2018.1480818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Lucas J. Greville
- Department of Psychology Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Rachel E. Weaver
- Department of Psychology Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Marija Radenovic
- Department of Psychology Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
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6
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Pollock T, Weaver RE, Ghasemi R, deCatanzaro D. A mixture of five endocrine-disrupting chemicals modulates concentrations of bisphenol A and estradiol in mice. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 193:321-328. [PMID: 29145094 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Most people in developed countries are exposed to multiple endocrine-disrupting synthetic chemicals. We previously showed that a single dose of triclosan, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), butyl paraben, propyl paraben, or di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate elevated concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) in mice. Here we investigated whether concurrent exposure to lower doses of these five chemicals could modulate concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) or the natural estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2). CF1 mice were injected subcutaneously with 0.1 or 0.5 mg of one chemical, or a 0.5 mg mixture containing 0.1 mg of each of all five chemicals, then given dietary 50 μg kg-114C-BPA. The mixture elevated 14C-BPA concentrations in the lungs, muscle, uterus, ovaries, kidney, and blood serum of female mice. When administered alone, triclosan and TBBPA elevated 14C-BPA concentrations in the uterus, ovaries, and blood serum. In another experiment, CF1 mice were injected subcutaneously with the 0.5 mg mixture containing 0.1 mg of all five chemicals, then E2 was measured in urine 2-12 h later. The mixture elevated E2 at 8 h after injection in female mice. No treatments significantly altered concentrations of 14C-BPA or E2 in male mice. These data show that these endocrine-disrupting chemicals interact in vivo, magnifying one another's effects, consistent with inhibition of enzymes that are critical for estrogen metabolism. These findings highlight the importance of considering exposure to multiple chemicals when assessing health outcomes and determining regulatory exposure limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Rachel E Weaver
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ramtin Ghasemi
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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7
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Pollock T, Mantella L, Reali V, deCatanzaro D. Influence of Tetrabromobisphenol A, with or without Concurrent Triclosan, upon Bisphenol A and Estradiol Concentrations in Mice. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:087014. [PMID: 28886593 PMCID: PMC5783675 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Humans are commonly exposed to multiple environmental chemicals, including tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA; a flame retardant), triclosan (an antimicrobial agent), and bisphenol A (BPA; polycarbonate plastics). These chemicals are readily absorbed and may interact with each other. OBJECTIVES We sought to determine whether TBBPA, given alone or in combination with triclosan, can modulate the concentrations of BPA and 17β-estradiol (E2). METHODS Female and male CF-1 mice were each given a subcutaneous injection of 0-27mg TBBPA, with or without concurrent 0.33mg triclosan, followed by dietary administration of 50μg/kg body weight 14C-BPA. Radioactivity was measured in blood serum and tissues through liquid scintillation counting. In subsequent experiments, female and male CF-1 mice were each given a subcutaneous injection of 0 or 1mg TBBPA and E2 was measured in urine 2-12 h after injection. RESULTS Doses as low as 1mg TBBPA significantly elevated 14C-BPA concentrations in the uterus and ovaries of females; in the testes, epididymides, vesicular-coagulating glands, and preputial glands of males; and in blood serum, heart, lungs, and kidneys of both sexes; urinary E2 concentrations were also elevated. Lower doses of TBBPA or triclosan that had no effects on their own elevated 14C-BPA concentrations when the two substances were given concurrently. CONCLUSION These data indicate that TBBPA, triclosan, and BPA interact in vivo, consistent with evidence that TBBPA and triclosan inhibit enzymes that are critical for BPA and E2 metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1329.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Leanna Mantella
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Vanessa Reali
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University , Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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8
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Butyl paraben and propyl paraben modulate bisphenol A and estradiol concentrations in female and male mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2017; 325:18-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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9
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Greville LJ, Pollock T, Salter JC, Faure PA, deCatanzaro D. Progesterone transfer among cohabitating female big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 247:199-204. [PMID: 28185935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Experiments using female mice and bats have demonstrated that tritium-labeled 17β-estradiol (3H-E2) can be absorbed via cutaneous and intranasal routes and distributed to reproductive and neural tissues. Radioactivity has also been measured in tissues of untreated females after 48h cohabitation with 3H-E2 injected males. The present study was designed to quantify steroid transfer among female bats. Radioactive quantification via liquid scintillation counting revealed absorption of tritium-labeled progesterone (3H-P4) in adult females 1h after cutaneous and intranasal application (10μCi). Subsequently, pairs of mature females were each housed for 48h with a single mature female that had been administered 3H-P4 (50μCi) via intraperitoneal injection. Radioactivity was observed in all collected tissues of all non-injected females at levels significantly greater than the control group. Following the same paradigm, radioactivity was not observed in the tissues of untreated female bats that were housed with stimulus females treated with 3H-E2 (50μCi). Enzyme immunoassays revealed measurable levels of unconjugated progesterone and estradiol in the urine of female bats, suggesting urine as a vector for steroid transfer. Given that bats of this species live in predominantly female roosts in very close contact, progesterone transfer among individuals is likely to occur in natural roosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas J Greville
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Joseph C Salter
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Paul A Faure
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada.
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10
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Borman ED, Vecchi N, Pollock T, deCatanzaro D. Diethylhexyl phthalate magnifies deposition of 14 C-bisphenol A in reproductive tissues of mice. J Appl Toxicol 2017; 37:1225-1231. [PMID: 28555957 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine disrupting chemicals are found in diverse common products, including cosmetics, food packaging, thermal receipt paper and plastic containers. This exposes most people in developed countries through ingestion, skin absorption and inhalation. Two ubiquitous endocrine disrupting chemicals, bisphenol A (BPA) and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) can interact in disrupting blastocyst implantation in inseminated females. We hypothesized that DEHP might increase the bioavailability of BPA in tissues by competing for metabolic enzymes. We injected 0, 3, 9 or 18 mg DEHP into female and male mice and allowed 30 min for the chemical to circulate before giving them a food supplement containing 50 μg kg-1 14 C-BPA. Animals were dissected 1 h following 14 C-BPA administration and various tissue samples were acquired. Samples were solubilized and radioactivity was measured via liquid scintillation counting. In cycling females, DEHP increased BPA deposition in the muscle, uterus, ovaries and blood serum relative to controls. In peri-implantation females, DEHP increased deposition of BPA in the uterus, ovaries and serum relative to controls. In males, DEHP doses increased BPA deposition in serum and epididymis relative to controls. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that DEHP competes with BPA for conjugating enzymes such as UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, thereby magnifying the presence of BPA in estrogen-binding reproductive tissues. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan D Borman
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Nicholas Vecchi
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Tyler Pollock
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
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Elliott B, Muir C, deCatanzaro D. Sources of variance within and among young men in concentrations of 17β-estradiol and testosterone in axillary perspiration. Physiol Behav 2017; 173:23-29. [PMID: 28119158 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The most potent estrogen, 17β-estradiol (E2), and its precursor, testosterone (T), play critical roles in mammalian reproductive processes. Evidence indicates that these steroids are present in bioactive form in the excretions of many male mammals. It has been demonstrated that small lipophilic steroids such as E2 can be absorbed by proximate females from male excretions, arriving in the uterus, brain, and other organs where there are estrogen receptors. We took repeated samples of axillary perspiration from men aged 20-30years during vigorous exercise. Both steroids were consistently measurable, with concentrations that ranged from values comparable to those in facial perspiration and urine of both men and women to values that greatly exceeded concentrations observed in any other substrate of men and women. Inter-individual variance in axillary E2 was positively correlated with the extent of intimate experience with women, as assessed by a questionnaire, but unrelated to subjective measures of stress, exercise habits, or phytoestrogen content of diet. In addition, higher levels of axillary E2 were observed in participants when samples were collected by a female (as compared to a male) experimenter. These data are concordant with an hypothesis that male excretion of sex steroids could exert pro-reproductive influences on proximate females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney Elliott
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Cameron Muir
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Denys deCatanzaro
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada.
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