A single, recent origin of the accessory B chromosome of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

Chromosomal and genomic analysis suggests single origin and high molecular differentiation of the B chromosome of Abracris flavolineata

Supernumerary chromosomes (B chromosomes) have been an intriguing subject of study. Our understanding of the molecular differentiation of B chromosomes from an interpopulation perspective remains limited, with most analyses involving chromosome banding and mapping of a few sequences. To gain insights into the molecular composition, origin, and evolution of B chromosomes, we conducted cytogenetic and next-generation sequencing analysis of the repeatome in the grasshopper Abracris flavolineata across various populations. Our results unveiled the presence of B chromosomes in two newly investigated populations and described new satellite DNA sequences. While we observed some degree of genetic connection among A. flavolineata populations, our comparative analysis of genomes with and without B chromosomes provided evidence of two new B chromosome variants. These variants exhibited distinct compositions of various repeat classes, including transposable elements and satellite DNAs. Based on shared repeats, their chromosomal location, and the C-positive heterochromatin content on the B chromosome, these variants likely share a common origin but have undergone distinct molecular differentiation processes, resulting in varying degrees of heterochromatinization. Our data serve as a detailed example of the dynamic and differentiated nature of B chromosome molecular content at the interpopulation level, even when they share a common origin.

A New Variant B Chromosome in Auchenipteridae: The Role of (GATA)n and (TTAGGG)n Sequences in Understanding the Evolution of Supernumeraries in Trachelyopterus

Basic and molecular cytogenetic techniques were carried out in 3 Neotropical region populations of catfishes, two of Trachelyopterus galeatus (one from the marshlands of Paraguay River basin and another from Lago Catalão, Amazon River basin) and one of Trachelyopterus porosus, a sympatric population to T. galeatus from the Amazon River basin. This study aimed to describe and understand the structure and evolution of Trachelyopterus B chromosomes, mainly through physical mapping of repetitive elements. A diploid number of 58 chromosomes was found for all individuals, as well as the presence of B chromosomes. For T. porosus this is the first report of a supernumerary. The sympatric species of T. galeatus and T. porosus from Amazon River had 1-3 B chromosomes and T. galeatus from Paraguay River had 1-2 B chromosomes, all of them showed intra- and interindividual numerical variation. Two females of T. porosus exhibited a new variant B chromosome (B2), previously not seen in Auchenipteridae, which might have originated from B1 chromosomes. All B chromosomes were entirely heterochromatic. In contrast to all complement A and B2 chromosomes, in which the telomeric sequences were found in the telomeric regions, B1 chromosomes of all populations were totally marked by (TTAGGG)n probes. (GATA)n sequence sites were found through all complement A chromosomes, but B1 and B2 chromosomes exhibited only a clustered block in one of the chromosome arms. The most frequent B chromosomes (B1) in all populations/species, including those previously studied in Auchenipteridae catfishes, share the following characteristics: totally heterochromatic, small, metacentric, with accumulation of repetitive (TTAGGG)n sequences, and a low number of (GATA)n copies, which might suggest a common ancient origin in Trachelyopterus species/populations.

Satellite DNA Is an Inseparable Fellow Traveler of B Chromosomes

Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) has revealed that B chromosomes in several species are enriched in repetitive DNA, mostly satellite DNA (satDNA). This raises the question of whether satDNA is important to B chromosomes for functional reasons or else its abundance on Bs is simply a consequence of properties of B chromosomes such as their dispensability and late replication. Here we review current knowledge in this respect and contextualize it within the frame of practical difficulties to perform this kind of research, the most important being the absence of good full genome sequencing for B-carrying species, which is an essential requisite to ascertain the intragenomic origin of B chromosomes. Our review analysis on 16 species revealed that 38% of them showed B-specific satDNAs whereas only one of them (6%) carried an inter-specifically originated B chromosome. This shows that B-specific satDNA families can eventually evolve in intraspecifically arisen B chromosomes. Finally, the possibility of satDNA accumulation on B chromosomes for functional reasons is exemplified by B chromosomes in rye, as they contain B-specific satDNAs which are transcribed and occupy chromosome locations where they might facilitate the kind of drive shown by this B chromosome during pollen grain mitosis.

Interpopulation spread of a parasitic B chromosome is unlikely through males in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

The near-neutral model of B chromosome evolution predicts that population invasion is quite fast. To test this prediction, in 1994, we introduced males of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans from a B-carrying population into a B-lacking population and monitored the evolution of B-chromosome frequency up to 2013. We observed fluctuating very low B frequency across years but, remarkably, the B chromosome introduced (the B2 variant) was found up to 1996 only, whereas the B1 variant was present from 1996 onwards, presumably introduced by fishermen using E. plorans males as bait. Effective introgression of genetic material from the donor population was evidenced by the presence of a satellite DNA on autosome 9 (up to 1999) and the presence of one individual in 2006 showing an ISSR marker profile being highly similar to that found in the donor population. This indicated that the males introduced by us effectively mated with resident females, but donor genes rapidly decreased in frequency after this non-recurrent migration event. Taken together, our results indicated: (i) that the non-recurrent migration event had a slight, transient genetic effect on the recipient population, which was diluted in only a few generations; and (ii) that even with recurrent migration (forced by fishermen) the B chromosome failed to increase in frequency. Bearing in mind that B chromosomes in this species drive through females only, we hypothesize that B chromosomes most likely failed invasion in both migration events because the migrating sex shows no B-drive.

Gene expression changes elicited by a parasitic B chromosome in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans are consistent with its phenotypic effects

Parasitism evokes adaptive physiological changes in the host, many of which take place through gene expression changes. This response can be more or less local, depending on the organ or tissue affected by the parasite, or else systemic when the parasite affects the entire host body. The most extreme of the latter cases is intragenomic parasitism, where the parasite is present in all host nuclei as any other genomic element. Here, we show the molecular crosstalk between a parasitic chromosome (also named B chromosome) and the host genome, manifested through gene expression changes. The transcriptome analysis of 0B and 1B females of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans, validated by a microarray experiment performed on four B-lacking and five B-carrying females, revealed changes in gene expression for 188 unigenes being consistent in both experiments. Once discarded B-derived transcripts, there were 46 differentially expressed genes (30 up- and 16 downregulated) related with the adaptation of the host genome to the presence of the parasitic chromosome. Interestingly, the functions of these genes could explain some of the most important effects of B chromosomes, such as nucleotypic effects derived from the additional DNA they represent, chemical defense and detoxification, protein modification and response to stress, ovary function, and regulation of gene expression. Collectively, these changes uncover an intimate host-parasite interaction between A and B chromosomes during crucial steps of gene expression and protein function.

Evolution of Plant B Chromosome Enriched Sequences

B chromosomes are supernumerary chromosomes found in addition to the normal standard chromosomes (A chromosomes). B chromosomes are well known to accumulate several distinct types of repeated DNA elements. Although the evolution of B chromosomes has been the subject of numerous studies, the mechanisms of accumulation and evolution of repetitive sequences are not fully understood. Recently, new genomic approaches have shed light on the origin and accumulation of different classes of repetitive sequences in the process of B chromosome formation and evolution. Here we discuss the impact of repetitive sequences accumulation on the evolution of plant B chromosomes.

Unique sequence organization and small RNA expression of a "selfish" B chromosome

B chromosomes are found in numerous plants and animals. These nonessential, supernumerary chromosomes are often composed primarily of noncoding DNA repeats similar to those found within transcriptionally "silenced" heterochromatin. In order to persist within their resident genomes, many B chromosomes exhibit exceptional cellular behaviors, including asymmetric segregation into gametes and induction of genome elimination during early development. An important goal in understanding these behaviors is to identify unique B chromosome sequences and characterize their transcriptional contributions. We investigated these properties by examining a paternally transmitted B chromosome known as paternal sex ratio (PSR), which is present in natural populations of the jewel wasp Nasonia vitripennis. To facilitate its own transmission, PSR severely biases the sex ratio by disrupting early chromatin remodeling processes. Through cytological mapping and other approaches, we identified multiple DNA repeats unique to PSR, as well as those found on the A chromosomes, suggesting that PSR arose through a merger of sequences from both within and outside the N. vitripennis genome. The majority of PSR-specific repeats are interspersed among each other across PSR's long arm, in contrast with the distinct "blocks" observed in other organisms' heterochromatin. Through transcriptional profiling, we identified a subset of repeat-associated, small RNAs expressed by PSR, most of which map to a single PSR-specific repeat. These RNAs are expressed at much higher levels than those arising from A chromosome-linked repeats, suggesting that in addition to its sequence organization, PSR's transcriptional properties differ substantially from the pericentromeric regions of the normal chromosomes.

Protein-coding genes in B chromosomes of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

For many years, parasitic B chromosomes have been considered genetically inert elements. Here we show the presence of ten protein-coding genes in the B chromosome of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans. Four of these genes (CIP2A, GTPB6, KIF20A, and MTG1) were complete in the B chromosome whereas the six remaining (CKAP2, CAP-G, HYI, MYCB2, SLIT and TOP2A) were truncated. Five of these genes (CIP2A, CKAP2, CAP-G, KIF20A, and MYCB2) were significantly up-regulated in B-carrying individuals, as expected if they were actively transcribed from the B chromosome. This conclusion is supported by three truncated genes (CKAP2, CAP-G and MYCB2) which showed up-regulation only in the regions being present in the B chromosome. Our results indicate that B chromosomes are not so silenced as was hitherto believed. Interestingly, the five active genes in the B chromosome code for functions related with cell division, which is the main arena where B chromosome destiny is played. This suggests that B chromosome evolutionary success can lie on its gene content.

Possible origin of B chromosome in Dichotomius sericeus (Coleoptera)

B chromosomes have so far been described in about 80 species of Coleoptera, mainly using conventional staining analysis. In this study, 152 individuals of the dung beetle Dichotomius sericeus (Coleoptera), collected from three isolated geographical areas in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil, were analyzed to determine the frequency, prevalence, distribution, meiotic behavior, and possible B chromosome origin. The cytogenetic analysis consisted of conventional staining, C-banding, triple fluorochrome staining (CMA3/DA/DAPI), and fluorescent in situ hybridization using ribosomal DNAs (rDNAs) and H3 histone gene as probes, as well as microdissection and chromosome painting of the B chromosome. The B chromosomes were detected in all populations analyzed. Analysis revealed the heterochromatic nature and the presence of G+C-rich blocks and 18S rDNA on the B chromosome. FISH with DNA from microdissected B chromosome painted the entire extension of the B chromosome for all populations, besides the pericentromeric regions of all the autosomes, as well as the X chromosome. Finally, cross-hybridization in nine related species of Dichotomius using the microdissected B chromosome as probe did not reveal any hybridization signal. The results suggest an intraspecific and monophyletic origin for B chromosomes in D. sericeus, probably from the second or third autosomal pair.

Origin of B chromosomes in the genus Astyanax (Characiformes, Characidae) and the limits of chromosome painting

Eukaryote genomes are frequently burdened with the presence of supernumerary (B) chromosomes. Their origin is frequently investigated by chromosome painting, under the hypothesis that sharing the repetitive DNA sequences contained in the painting probes is a sign of common descent. However, the intragenomic mobility of many anonymous DNA sequences contained in these probes (e.g., transposable elements) adds high uncertainty to this conclusion. Here we test the validity of chromosome painting to investigate B chromosome origin by comparing its results for seven B chromosome types in two fish species genus Astyanax, with those obtained (1) by means of the physical mapping of 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA), H1 histone genes, the As51 satellite DNA and the (AC)15 microsatellite, and (2) by comparing the nucleotide sequence of one of these families (ITS regions from ribosomal DNA) between genomic DNA from B-lacking individuals in both species and the microdissected DNA from two metacentric B chromosomes found in these same species. Intra- and inter-specific painting suggested that all B chromosomes that were assayed shared homologous DNA sequences among them, as well as with a variable number of A chromosomes in each species. This finding would be consistent with a common origin for all seven B chromosomes analyzed. By contrast, the physical mapping of repetitive DNA sequences failed to give support to this hypothesis, as no more than two B-types shared a given repetitive DNA. Finally, sequence analysis of the ITS regions suggested that at least some of the B chromosomes could have had a common origin.

Geographical Barriers Impeded the Spread of a Parasitic Chromosome

Parasitic supernumerary (B) chromosomes show high capability to spread across populations. But the existence of abrupt discontinuities in their distribution demands an explanation. The grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans plorans harbour supernumerary chromosomes in all natural populations hitherto analyzed from the Circum-Mediterranean region, with the single exception of the headwaters of the Iberian Segura River and several of its tributaries. To ascertain the causes of this distribution pattern, we analyze here the genetic structure of five natural populations collected in this zone (two +B and three -B), by means of ISSR markers. We found significant population structure, with two kinds of populations coinciding with +B and -B ones, separated by strong barriers to gene flow. This gives strong support to the hypothesis that the non-B populations precede B origin, and that B-carrying individuals from coastal zones have been able to colonize upstream areas, until geographical barriers (usually narrow canyons and arid areas surrounding them) impeded their advance.

A step to the gigantic genome of the desert locust: chromosome sizes and repeated DNAs

The desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) has been used as material for numerous cytogenetic studies. Its genome size is estimated to be 8.55 Gb of DNA comprised in 11 autosomes and the X chromosome. Its X0/XX sex chromosome determinism therefore results in females having 24 chromosomes whereas males have 23. Surprisingly, little is known about the DNA content of this locust's huge chromosomes. Here, we use the Feulgen Image Analysis Densitometry and C-banding techniques to respectively estimate the DNA quantity and heterochromatin content of each chromosome. We also identify three satellite DNAs using both restriction endonucleases and next-generation sequencing. We then use fluorescent in situ hybridization to determine the chromosomal location of these satellite DNAs as well as that of six tandem repeat DNA gene families. The combination of the results obtained in this work allows distinguishing between the different chromosomes not only by size, but also by the kind of repetitive DNAs that they contain. The recent publication of the draft genome of the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), the largest animal genome hitherto sequenced, invites for sequencing even larger genomes. S. gregaria is a pest that causes high economic losses. It is thus among the primary candidates for genome sequencing. But this species genome is about 50 % larger than that of L. migratoria, and although next-generation sequencing currently allows sequencing large genomes, sequencing it would mean a greater challenge. The chromosome sizes and markers provided here should not only help planning the sequencing project and guide the assembly but would also facilitate assigning assembled linkage groups to actual chromosomes.

Next generation sequencing and FISH reveal uneven and nonrandom microsatellite distribution in two grasshopper genomes

Simple sequence repeats (SSRs), also known as microsatellites, are one of the prominent DNA sequences shaping the repeated fraction of eukaryotic genomes. In spite of their profuse use as molecular markers for a variety of genetic and evolutionary studies, their genomic location, distribution, and function are not yet well understood. Here we report the first thorough joint analysis of microsatellite motifs at both genomic and chromosomal levels in animal species, by a combination of 454 sequencing and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) techniques performed on two grasshopper species. The in silico analysis of the 454 reads suggested that microsatellite expansion is not driving size increase of these genomes, as SSR abundance was higher in the species showing the smallest genome. However, the two species showed the same uneven and nonrandom location of SSRs, with clear predominance of dinucleotide motifs and association with several types of repetitive elements, mostly histone gene spacers, ribosomal DNA intergenic spacers (IGS), and transposable elements (TEs). The FISH analysis showed a dispersed chromosome distribution of microsatellite motifs in euchromatic regions, in coincidence with chromosome location patterns previously observed for many mobile elements in these species. However, some SSR motifs were clustered, especially those located in the histone gene cluster.

Characterization of four B-chromosome-specific RAPDs and the development of SCAR markers on the maize B-chromosome

Understanding the molecular organization of the maize B-chromosome is hindered by its high homology with A-chromosomes. Recently, various approaches have been employed to overcome this hindrance, and several B-chromosome-specific sequences have been identified. Here, we cloned and characterized four previously published B-chromosome-specific RAPD fragments in detail. The results of sequence analysis, Southern hybridization and fluorescence in situ hybridization revealed that the four RAPD fragments are repetitive and present on both the B- and A-chromosomes, which supports an A-chromosome origin of the B-chromosome. We further developed four sequence-characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers derived from the four B-chromosome-specific RAPDs. These markers amplified PCR products exclusively in plants with B-chromosomes and were further mapped to definite distal heterochromatic regions of the B-chromosome by 15 B-A translocations. Furthermore, reverse transcriptase-PCR revealed that two of the four B-chromosome-specific RAPD fragments are transcriptionally active. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using B-chromosome-specific RAPD sequences to generate SCAR markers specific to the B-chromosome and might apply to other sequences of the maize B-chromosome.

U1 snDNA clusters in grasshoppers: chromosomal dynamics and genomic organization

The spliceosome, constituted by a protein set associated with small nuclear RNA (snRNA), is responsible for mRNA maturation through intron removal. Among snRNA genes, U1 is generally a conserved repetitive sequence. To unveil the chromosomal/genomic dynamics of this multigene family in grasshoppers, we mapped U1 genes by fluorescence in situ hybridization in 70 species belonging to the families Proscopiidae, Pyrgomorphidae, Ommexechidae, Romaleidae and Acrididae. Evident clusters were observed in all species, indicating that, at least, some U1 repeats are tandemly arrayed. High conservation was observed in the first four families, with most species carrying a single U1 cluster, frequently located in the third or fourth longest autosome. By contrast, extensive variation was observed among Acrididae, from a single chromosome pair carrying U1 to all chromosome pairs carrying it, with occasional occurrence of two or more clusters in the same chromosome. DNA sequence analysis in Eyprepocnemis plorans (species carrying U1 clusters on seven different chromosome pairs) and Locusta migratoria (carrying U1 in a single chromosome pair) supported the coexistence of functional and pseudogenic lineages. One of these pseudogenic lineages was truncated in the same nucleotide position in both species, suggesting that it was present in a common ancestor to both species. At least in E. plorans, this U1 snDNA pseudogenic lineage was associated with 5S rDNA and short interspersed elements (SINE)-like mobile elements. Given that we conclude in grasshoppers that the U1 snDNA had evolved under the birth-and-death model and that its intragenomic spread might be related with mobile elements.

B chromosomes in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans are present in all body parts analyzed and show extensive variation for rDNA copy number

B chromosomes in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans are considered to be mitotically stable, because all meiotic (primary spermatocytes and oocytes) or mitotic (embryos, ovarioles, and gastric caecum) cells analyzed within the same individual show the same B chromosome number. Nothing is known, however, about body parts with somatic tissues with no mitotic activity in adult individuals, constituting the immense majority of their body. Therefore, we investigated whether B chromosomes are present in 8 non-mitotically active somatic body parts from both sexes in addition to ovarioles and testes by PCR analysis of 2 B-specific molecular markers. We also elucidated the number of B chromosomes that an individual carried through quantifying the B-located rDNA copy number by qPCR. Our results indicated the amplification of both B-specific markers in all analyzed body parts. However, we found high variation between males for the estimated number of rDNA units in the B chromosomes. These results demonstrate the presence of B chromosomes in all body parts from the same individual and suggest a high variation in the rDNA content of the B chromosomes carried by different individuals from the same population, presumably due to unequal crossovers during meiosis.

Microsatellite organization in the grasshopper Abracris flavolineata (Orthoptera: Acrididae) revealed by FISH mapping: remarkable spreading in the A and B chromosomes

With the aim of acquiring deeper knowledge about repetitive DNAs chromosomal organization in grasshoppers, we used fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to map the distribution of 16 microsatellite repeats, including mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-nucleotides, in the chromosomes of the species Abracris flavolineata (Acrididae), which harbors B chromosome. FISH revealed two main patterns: (i) exclusively scattered signals, and (ii) scattered and specific signals, forming evident blocks. The enrichment was observed in both euchromatic and heterochromatic areas and only the motif (C)30 was absent in heterochromatin. The A and B chromosomes were enriched with all the elements that were mapped, being observed in the B chromosome more distinctive blocks for (GA)15 and (GAG)10. For A complement distinctive blocks were noticed for (A)30, (CA)15, (CG)15, (GA)15, (CAC)10, (CAA)10, (CGG)10, (GAA)10, (GAC)10 and (GATA)8. These results revealed an intense spreading of microsatellites in the A. flavolineata genome that was independent of the A+T or G+C enrichment in the repeats. The data indicate that the microsatellites compose the B chromosome and could be involved in the evolution of this element in this species, although no specific relationship with any A chromosome was observed to discuss about its origin. The systematic analysis presented here contributes to the knowledge of repetitive DNA chromosomal organization among grasshoppers including the B chromosomes.

HP1 knockdown is associated with abnormal condensation of almost all chromatin types in a grasshopper (Eyprepocnemis plorans)

Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) is a highly conserved family of eukaryotic proteins required for heterochromatic gene silencing and euchromatic gene transcription regulation. In addition, HP1 is involved in chromatin organization and protection of chromosome integrity during cell division. Here, we present a cytological and molecular analysis of the effects of HP1 knockdown in Eyprepocnemis plorans, a grasshopper species polymorphic for supernumerary heterochromatic chromosomes. Our results revealed contrasting effects of HP1 knockdown on gene activity. While the Bub1 gene decreased in expression level in HP1 knockdown animals, NOR activity, rRNA and, contrarily to previous reports in Drosophila, Hsp70 gene expression remained unchanged. Furthermore, HP1 knockdown resulted in abnormal chromatin condensation, chromosomal bridges, higher frequency of macrospermatids, loss of muscle mass and hemolymph amount as well as a low number of dividing cells and survival reduction. All these phenotypes are very likely due to the chromatin condensation disruption observed for almost all kinds of chromatin.

Disparate molecular evolution of two types of repetitive DNAs in the genome of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

Wide arrays of repetitive DNA sequences form an important part of eukaryotic genomes. These repeats appear to evolve as coherent families, where repeats within a family are more similar to each other than to other orthologous representatives in related species. The continuous homogenization of repeats, through selective and non-selective processes, is termed concerted evolution. Ascertaining the level of variation between repeats is crucial to determining which evolutionary model best explains the homogenization observed for these sequences. Here, for the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans, we present the analysis of intragenomic diversity for two repetitive DNA sequences (a satellite DNA (satDNA) and the 45S rDNA) resulting from the independent microdissection of several chromosomes. Our results show different homogenization patterns for these two kinds of paralogous DNA sequences, with a high between-chromosome structure for rDNA but no structure at all for the satDNA. This difference is puzzling, considering the adjacent localization of the two repetitive DNAs on paracentromeric regions in most chromosomes. The disparate homogenization patterns detected for these two repetitive DNA sequences suggest that several processes participate in the concerted evolution in E. plorans, and that these mechanisms might not work as genome-wide processes but rather as sequence-specific ones.

B1 was the ancestor B chromosome variant in the western Mediterranean area in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

We analyzed the distribution of 2 repetitive DNAs, i.e. ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and a satellite DNA (satDNA), on the B chromosomes found in 17 natural populations of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis ploransplorans sampled around the western Mediterranean region, including the Iberian Peninsula, Balearic Islands, Sicily, and Tunisia. Based on the amount of these repetitive DNAs, 4 types of B variants were found: B1, showing an equal or higher amount of rDNA than satDNA, and 3 other variants, B2, B24 and B5, bearing a higher amount of satDNA than rDNA. The variants B1 and B2 varied in size among populations: B1 was about half the size of the X chromosome in Balearic Islands, but two-thirds of the X in Iberian populations at Alicante, Murcia and Albacete provinces. Likewise, B2 was about one-third the size of the X chromosome in populations from the Granada province but half the size of the X in the populations collected at Málaga province. The widespread geographical distribution of the B1 variant makes it the best candidate for being the ancestor B chromosome in the whole western Mediterranean region.

Ribosomal DNA is active in different B chromosome variants of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans

B chromosomes are considered to be genetically inert elements. However, some of them are able to show nucleolus organizer region (NOR) activity, as detected by both cytological and molecular means. The grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans shows a B chromosome polymorphism characterized by the existence of many B variants. One of them, B24, shows NOR activity in about half of B-carrying males in the Torrox population. Molecular data have suggested the recent origin for B chromosomes in this species, and on this basis it would be expected that NOR activity was widespread among the different B variants. Here we test this hypothesis in four different B chromosome variants (B1, B2, B5, and B24) from 11 natural populations of the grasshopper E. plorans covering the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula plus the Balearic Islands. We used two different approaches: (1) the cytological observation of nucleoli attached to the distal region of the B chromosome (where the rDNA is located), and (2) the molecular detection of the rDNA transcripts carrying an adenine insertion characteristic of B chromosome ITS2 sequences. The results showed NOR expression not only for B24 but also for the B1 and B2 variants. However, the level of B-NOR expression in these latter variants, measured by the proportion of cells showing nucleoli attached to the B chromosomes, was much lower than that previously reported for B24. This suggests the possibility that structural or genetic background conditions are enhancing the expressivity of the rDNA in the B24 variant.

Chromosomal Mapping of Repetitive DNAs in the Grasshopper Abracris flavolineata Reveal Possible Ancestry of the B Chromosome and H3 Histone Spreading

Supernumerary chromosomes (B chromosomes) occur in approximately 15% of eukaryote species. Although these chromosomes have been extensively studied, knowledge concerning their specific molecular composition is lacking in most cases. The accumulation of repetitive DNAs is one remarkable characteristic of B chromosomes, and the occurrence of distinct types of multigene families, satellite DNAs and some transposable elements have been reported. Here, we describe the organization of repetitive DNAs in the A complement and B chromosome system in the grasshopper species Abracris flavolineata using classical cytogenetic techniques and FISH analysis using probes for five multigene families, telomeric repeats and repetitive C0t-1 DNA fractions. The 18S rRNA and H3 histone multigene families are highly variable and well distributed in A. flavolineata chromosomes, which contrasts with the conservation of U snRNA genes and less variable distribution of 5S rDNA sequences. The H3 histone gene was an extensively distributed with clusters occurring in all chromosomes. Repetitive DNAs were concentrated in C-positive regions, including the pericentromeric region and small chromosomal arms, with some occurrence in C-negative regions, but abundance was low in the B chromosome. Finally, the first demonstration of the U2 snRNA gene in B chromosomes in A. flavolineata may shed light on its possible origin. These results provide new information regarding chromosomal variability for repetitive DNAs in grasshoppers and the specific molecular composition of B chromosomes.

The dispensable chromosome of Leptosphaeria maculans shelters an effector gene conferring avirulence towards Brassica rapa

Phytopathogenic fungi frequently contain dispensable chromosomes, some of which contribute to host range or pathogenicity. In Leptosphaeria maculans, the stem canker agent of oilseed rape (Brassica napus), the minichromosome was previously suggested to be dispensable, without evidence for any role in pathogenicity. Using genetic and genomic approaches, we investigated the inheritance and molecular determinant of an L. maculans-Brassica rapa incompatible interaction. Single gene control of the resistance was found, while all markers located on the L. maculans minichromosome, absent in the virulent parental isolate, co-segregated with the avirulent phenotype. Only one candidate avirulence gene was identified on the minichromosome, validated by complementation experiments and termed AvrLm11. The minichromosome was frequently lost following meiosis, but the frequency of isolates lacking it remained stable in field populations sampled at a 10-yr time interval, despite a yearly sexual stage in the L. maculans life cycle. This work led to the cloning of a new 'lost in the middle of nowhere' avirulence gene of L. maculans, interacting with a B. rapa resistance gene termed Rlm11 and introgressed into B. napus. It demonstrated the dispensability of the L. maculans minichromosome and suggested that its loss generates a fitness deficit.

Population genetic structure of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans in the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula

The grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans subsp. plorans harbors a very widespread polymorphism for supernumerary (B) chromosomes which appear to have arisen recently. These chromosomes behave as genomic parasites because they are harmful for the individuals carrying them and show meiotic drive in the initial stages of population invasion. The rapid increase in B chromosome frequency at intrapopulation level is thus granted by meiotic drive, but its spread among populations most likely depends on interpopulation gene flow. We analyze here the population genetic structure in 10 natural populations from two regions (in the south and east) of the Iberian Peninsula. The southern populations were coastal whereas the eastern ones were inland populations located at 260–655 m altitude. The analysis of 97 ISSR markers revealed significant genetic differentiation among populations (average G_ST =  0.129), and the Structure software and AMOVA indicated a significant genetic differentiation between southern and eastern populations. There was also significant isolation by distance (IBD) between populations. Remarkably, these results were roughly similar to those found when only the markers showing low or no dropout were included, suggesting that allelic dropout had negligible effects on population genetic analysis. We conclude that high gene flow helped this parasitic B chromosome to spread through most of the geographical range of the subspecies E. plorans plorans.

Cytomolecular characterization of de novo formed rye B chromosome variants

BACKGROUND

B chromosomes (Bs) are dispensable elements which occur in many species including rye (Secale cereale). We determined the organization of B variants to obtain insights into the origin of B polymorphisms in rye.

RESULTS

The observed B variants were classified according to their morphology and in situ hybridization patterns with the B-specific repeats D1100 and CL11 into (I) long arm iso B, (II) D1100-deficient B and (III) small metacentric B variants. Long arm iso Bs are likely products of a meiotic centromere misdivision and subsequent duplication of the long arm, whereas small B variants are probably generated by chromosome breakage. Some deficient Bs experienced extensive amplification of CL11 repeats.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the pericentromere and the nondisjunction control region seem to be involved in the generation of rye B chromosome variants. However, due to the loss of the B-specific nondisjuction control region most of the variants generated are not capable to accumulate in a population.