Environmental and Genetic Contributions to Imperfect wMel-Like Wolbachia Transmission and Frequency Variation

Describing endosymbiont-host interactions within the parasitism-mutualism continuum

Endosymbionts are widespread in arthropods, living in host cells with effects that extend from parasitic to mutualistic. Newly acquired endosymbionts tend to be parasitic, but vertical transmission favors coevolution toward mutualism, with hosts sometimes developing dependency. Endosymbionts negatively affecting host fitness may still spread by impacting host reproductive traits, referred to as reproductive "manipulation," although costs for hosts are often assumed rather than demonstrated. For cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) that involves endosymbiont-mediated embryo death, theory predicts directional shifts away from "manipulation" toward reduced CI strength; moreover, CI-causing endosymbionts need to increase host fitness to initially spread. In nature, endosymbiont-host interactions and dynamics are complex, often depending on environmental conditions and evolutionary history. We advocate for capturing this complexity through appropriate datasets, rather than relying on terms like "manipulation." Such imprecision can lead to the misclassification of endosymbionts along the parasitism-mutualism continuum.

Rapid host switching of Wolbachia and even more rapid turnover of their phages and incompatibility-causing loci

About half of all insect species carry maternally inherited Wolbachia alphaproteobacteria, making Wolbachia the most common endosymbionts known in nature. Often Wolbachia spread to high frequencies within populations due to cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), a Wolbachia-induced sperm modification caused by prophage-associated genes (cifs) that kill embryos without Wolbachia. Several Wolbachia variants also block viruses, including wMel from Drosophila melanogaster when transinfected into the mosquito Aedes aegypti. CI enables the establishment and stable maintenance of pathogen-blocking wMel in natural Ae. aegypti populations. These transinfections are reducing dengue disease incidence on multiple continents. While it has long been known that closely related Wolbachia occupy distantly related hosts, the timing of Wolbachia host switching and molecular evolution has not been widely quantified. We provide a new, conservative calibration for Wolbachia chronograms based on examples of co-divergence of Wolbachia and their insect hosts. Synthesizing publicly available and new genomic data, we use our calibration to demonstrate that wMel-like variants separated by only about 370,000 years have naturally colonized holometabolous dipteran and hymenopteran insects that diverged approximately 350 million years ago. Data from Wolbachia variants closely related to those currently dominant in D. melanogaster and D. simulans illustrate that cifs are rapidly acquired and lost among Wolbachia genomes, on a time scale of 104-105 years. This turnover occurs with and without the Wovirus prophages that contain them, with closely related cifs found in distantly related phages and distantly related cifs found in closely related phages. We present evidence for purifying selection on CI rescue function and on particular Cif protein domains. Our results quantify the tempo and mode of rapid host switching and horizontal gene transfer that underlie the spread and diversity of Wolbachia sampled from diverse host species. The wMel variants we highlight from hosts in different climates may offer new options for broadening Wolbachia-based biocontrol of diseases and pests.

Comparative analysis of Wolbachia maternal transmission and localization in host ovaries

Many insects and other animals carry microbial endosymbionts that influence their reproduction and fitness. These relationships only persist if endosymbionts are reliably transmitted from one host generation to the next. Wolbachia are maternally transmitted endosymbionts found in most insect species, but transmission rates can vary across environments. Maternal transmission of wMel Wolbachia depends on temperature in natural Drosophila melanogaster hosts and in transinfected Aedes aegypti, where wMel is used to block pathogens that cause human disease. In D. melanogaster, wMel transmission declines in the cold as Wolbachia become less abundant in host ovaries and at the posterior pole plasm (the site of germline formation) in mature oocytes. Here, we assess how temperature affects maternal transmission and underlying patterns of Wolbachia localization across 10 Wolbachia strains diverged up to 50 million years-including strains closely related to wMel-and their natural Drosophila hosts. Many Wolbachia maintain high transmission rates across temperatures, despite highly variable (and sometimes low) levels of Wolbachia in the ovaries and at the developing germline in late-stage oocytes. Identifying strains like closely related wMel-like Wolbachia with stable transmission across variable environmental conditions may improve the efficacy of Wolbachia-based biocontrol efforts as they expand into globally diverse environments.

Comparative analysis of Wolbachia maternal transmission and localization in host ovaries

Many insects and other animals carry microbial endosymbionts that influence their reproduction and fitness. These relationships only persist if endosymbionts are reliably transmitted from one host generation to the next. Wolbachia are maternally transmitted endosymbionts found in most insect species, but transmission rates can vary across environments. Maternal transmission of wMel Wolbachia depends on temperature in natural Drosophila melanogaster hosts and in transinfected Aedes aegypti, where wMel is used to block pathogens that cause human disease. In D. melanogaster, wMel transmission declines in the cold as Wolbachia become less abundant in host ovaries and at the posterior pole plasm (the site of germline formation) in mature oocytes. Here, we assess how temperature affects maternal transmission and underlying patterns of Wolbachia localization across 10 Wolbachia strains diverged up to 50 million years-including strains closely related to wMel-and their natural Drosophila hosts. Many Wolbachia maintain high transmission rates across temperatures, despite highly variable (and sometimes low) levels of Wolbachia in the ovaries and at the developing germline in late-stage oocytes. Identifying strains like closely related wMel-like Wolbachia with stable transmission across variable environmental conditions may improve the efficacy of Wolbachia-based biocontrol efforts as they expand into globally diverse environments.

The Diversity of Wolbachia and Other Bacterial Symbionts in Spodoptera frugiperda

Bacterial symbionts associated with insects can be crucial in insect nutrition, metabolism, immune responses, development, and reproduction. However, the bacterial symbionts of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda remain unclear. S. frugiperda is an invasive polyphagous pest that severely damages many crops, particularly maize and wheat. Here, we investigated the infection, composition, abundance, and diversity of bacterial symbionts, especially Wolbachia, in different tissues of S. frugiperda female adults. The infection prevalence frequencies of Wolbachia in five provinces of China, namely Pu'er, Yunnan; Nanning, Guangxi; Sanya, Hainan; Yunfu, Guangdong; and Nanping, Fujian, were assessed. The results indicated that Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes were the three most dominant bacterial phyla in S. frugiperda adults. At the genus level, the abundant microbiota, which included Enterobacter and Enterococcus, varied in abundance between tissues of S. frugiperda. Wolbachia was found in the ovaries and salivary glands of S. frugiperda adults, and was present in 33.33% of the Pu'er, Yunnan, 23.33% of the Nanning, Guangxi, and 13.33% of the Sanya, Hainan populations, but Wolbachia was absent in the Yunfu, Guangdong and Nanping, Fujian populations. Further phylogenetic analyses revealed that all of the Wolbachia strains from the different S. frugiperda populations belonged to the supergroup B and were named the wFru strain. Since there were Wolbachia strains inducing cytoplasmic incompatibility in supergroup B, these findings may provide a foundation for developing potential biocontrol techniques against S. frugiperda.

The effects of temperature on prevalence of facultative insect heritable symbionts across spatial and seasonal scales

Facultative inheritable endosymbionts are common and diverse in insects and are often found at intermediate frequencies in insect host populations. The literature assessing the relationship between environment and facultative endosymbiont frequency in natural host populations points to temperature as a major component shaping the interaction. However, a synthesis describing its patterns and mechanistic basis is lacking. This mini-review aims to bridge this gap by, following an evolutionary model, hypothesizing that temperature increases endosymbiont frequencies by modulating key phenotypes mediating the interaction. Field studies mainly present positive correlations between temperature and endosymbiont frequency at spatial and seasonal scales; and unexpectedly, temperature is predominantly negatively correlated with the key phenotypes. Higher temperatures generally reduce the efficiency of maternal transmission, reproductive parasitism, endosymbiont influence on host fitness and the ability to protect against natural enemies. From the endosymbiont perspective alone, higher temperatures reduce titer and both high and low temperatures modulate their ability to promote host physiological acclimation and behavior. It is necessary to promote research programs that integrate field and laboratory approaches to pinpoint which processes are responsible for the temperature correlated patterns of endosymbiont prevalence in natural populations.

Dynamic changes in Wolbachia infection over a single generation of Drosophila suzukii, across a wide range of resource availability

Wolbachia bacteria are maternally inherited symbionts that commonly infect terrestrial arthropods. Many Wolbachia reach high frequencies in their hosts by manipulating their reproduction, for example by causing reproductive incompatibilities between infected male and uninfected female hosts. However, not all strains manipulate reproduction, and a key unresolved question is how these non-manipulative Wolbachia persist in their hosts, often at intermediate to high frequencies. One such strain, wSuz, infects the invasive fruit pest Drosophila suzukii, spotted-wing drosophila. Here, we tested the hypothesis that wSuz infection provides a competitive benefit when resources are limited. Over the course of one season, we established population cages with varying amounts of food in a semi-field setting and seeded them with a 50:50 mixture of flies with and without Wolbachia. We predicted that Wolbachia-infected individuals should have higher survival and faster development than their uninfected counterparts when there was little available food. We found that while food availability strongly impacted fly fitness, there was no difference in development times or survival between Wolbachia-infected and uninfected flies. Interestingly, however, Wolbachia infection frequencies changed dramatically, with infections either increasing or decreasing by as much as 30% in a single generation, suggesting the possibility of unidentified factors shaping Wolbachia infection over the course of the season.

The cellular lives of Wolbachia

Wolbachia are successful Gram-negative bacterial endosymbionts, globally infecting a large fraction of arthropod species and filarial nematodes. Efficient vertical transmission, the capacity for horizontal transmission, manipulation of host reproduction and enhancement of host fitness can promote the spread both within and between species. Wolbachia are abundant and can occupy extraordinary diverse and evolutionary distant host species, suggesting that they have evolved to engage and manipulate highly conserved core cellular processes. Here, we review recent studies identifying Wolbachia-host interactions at the molecular and cellular levels. We explore how Wolbachia interact with a wide array of host cytoplasmic and nuclear components in order to thrive in a diversity of cell types and cellular environments. This endosymbiont has also evolved the ability to precisely target and manipulate specific phases of the host cell cycle. The remarkable diversity of cellular interactions distinguishes Wolbachia from other endosymbionts and is largely responsible for facilitating its global propagation through host populations. Finally, we describe how insights into Wolbachia-host cellular interactions have led to promising applications in controlling insect-borne and filarial nematode-based diseases.

Cardinium symbionts are pervasive in Iranian populations of the spider mite Panonychus ulmi despite inducing an infection cost and no demonstrable reproductive phenotypes when Wolbachia is a symbiotic partner

Maternally transmitted symbionts such as Cardinium and Wolbachia are widespread in arthropods. Both Cardinium and Wolbachia can cause cytoplasmic incompatibility, a reproductive phenotype that interferes with the development of uninfected eggs that are fertilized by infected sperm. In haplodiploid hosts, these symbionts can also distort sex allocation to facilitate their spread through host populations. Without other fitness effects, symbionts that induce strong reproductive phenotypes tend to spread to high and stable infection frequencies, whereas variants that induce weak reproductive phenotypes are typically associated with intermediate and variable frequencies. To study the spread of Cardinium in a haplodiploid host, we sampled Iranian populations of the economically important spider mite Panonychus ulmi in apple orchards. Within several field populations, we also studied the Wolbachia infection frequencies. All P. ulmi field populations carried a Cardinium infection and exhibited high infection frequencies. In contrast, Wolbachia frequency ranged between ca. 10% and ca. 70% and was only found in co-infected mites. To test whether Cardinium induce reproductive phenotypes in P. ulmi, a Cardinium-cured derived line was generated by antibiotic treatment from a co-infected field population. Genetic crosses indicated that Cardinium do not induce demonstrable levels of cytoplasmic incompatibility and sex allocation distortion in co-infected P. ulmi. However, Cardinium infection was associated with a longer developmental time and reduced total fecundity for co-infected females. We hypothesize that Cardinium spread through P. ulmi populations via uncharacterized fitness effects and that co-infection with Wolbachia might impact these drive mechanisms.

Wolbachia enhances the survival of Drosophila infected with fungal pathogens

Wolbachia bacteria of arthropods are at the forefront of basic and translational research on multipartite host-symbiont-pathogen interactions. These microbes are vertically inherited from mother to offspring via the cytoplasm. They are the most widespread endosymbionts on the planet due to their infamous ability to manipulate the reproduction of their hosts to spread themselves in a population, and to provide a variety of fitness benefits to their hosts. Importantly, some strains of Wolbachia can inhibit viral pathogenesis within and between arthropod hosts. Mosquitoes carrying the wMel Wolbachia strain of Drosophila melanogaster have a greatly reduced capacity to spread viruses like dengue and Zika to humans. Therefore, Wolbachia are the basis of several global vector control initiatives. While significant research efforts have focused on viruses, relatively little attention has been given to Wolbachia-fungal interactions despite the ubiquity of fungal entomopathogens in nature. Here, we demonstrate that Wolbachia increase the longevity of their Drosophila melanogaster hosts when challenged with a spectrum of yeast and filamentous fungal pathogens. We find that this pattern can vary based on host genotype, sex, and fungal species. Further, Wolbachia correlates with higher fertility and reduced pathogen titers during initial fungal infection, indicating a significant fitness benefit. This study demonstrates Wolbachia's role in diverse fungal pathogen interactions and determines that the phenotype is broad, but with several variables that influence both the presence and strength of the phenotype. These results enhance our knowledge of the strategies Wolbachia uses that likely contribute to such a high global symbiont prevalence.

Distinct Wolbachia localization patterns in oocytes of diverse host species reveal multiple strategies of maternal transmission

A broad array of endosymbionts radiate through host populations via vertical transmission, yet much remains unknown concerning the cellular basis, diversity, and routes underlying this transmission strategy. Here, we address these issues, by examining the cellular distributions of Wolbachia strains that diverged up to 50 million years ago in the oocytes of 18 divergent Drosophila species. This analysis revealed 3 Wolbachia distribution patterns: (1) a tight clustering at the posterior pole plasm (the site of germline formation); (2) a concentration at the posterior pole plasm, but with a significant bacteria population distributed throughout the oocyte; and (3) a distribution throughout the oocyte, with none or very few located at the posterior pole plasm. Examination of this latter class indicates Wolbachia accesses the posterior pole plasm during the interval between late oogenesis and the blastoderm formation. We also find that 1 Wolbachia strain in this class concentrates in the posterior somatic follicle cells that encompass the pole plasm of the developing oocyte. In contrast, strains in which Wolbachia concentrate at the posterior pole plasm generally exhibit no or few Wolbachia in the follicle cells associated with the pole plasm. Taken together, these studies suggest that for some Drosophila species, Wolbachia invade the germline from neighboring somatic follicle cells. Phylogenomic analysis indicates that closely related Wolbachia strains tend to exhibit similar patterns of posterior localization, suggesting that specific localization strategies are a function of Wolbachia-associated factors. Previous studies revealed that endosymbionts rely on 1 of 2 distinct routes of vertical transmission: continuous maintenance in the germline (germline-to-germline) or a more circuitous route via the soma (germline-to-soma-to-germline). Here, we provide compelling evidence that Wolbachia strains infecting Drosophila species maintain the diverse arrays of cellular mechanisms necessary for both of these distinct transmission routes. This characteristic may account for its ability to infect and spread globally through a vast range of host insect species.

Wolbachia infection dynamics in a natural population of the pear psyllid Cacopsylla pyri (Hemiptera: Psylloidea) across its seasonal generations

Wolbachia is one of the most abundant intracellular symbionts of arthropods and has profound effects on host biology. Wolbachia transmission and host phenotypes often depend on its density within the host, which can be affected by multiple biotic and abiotic factors. However, very few studies measured Wolbachia density in natural host populations. Here, we describe Wolbachia in the pear psyllid Cacopsylla pyri from three populations in the Czech Republic. Using phylogenetic analyses based on wsp and multilocus sequence typing genes, we demonstrate that C. pyri harbours three new Wolbachia strains from supergroup B. A fourth Wolbachia strain from supergroup A was also detected in parasitised immatures of C. pyri, but likely came from a hymenopteran parasitoid. To obtain insights into natural Wolbachia infection dynamics, we quantified Wolbachia in psyllid individuals from the locality with the highest prevalence across an entire year, spanning several seasonal generations of the host. All tested females were infected and Wolbachia density remained stable across the entire period, suggesting a highly efficient vertical transmission and little influence from the environment and different host generations. In contrast, we observed a tendency towards reduced Wolbachia density in males which may suggest sex-related differences in Wolbachia-psyllid interactions.

Wolbachia infection and genetic diversity of Italian populations of Philaenus spumarius, the main vector of Xylella fastidiosa in Europe

Philaenus spumarius is a cosmopolitan species that has become a major threat to European agriculture being recognized as the main vector of the introduced plant pathogen Xylella fastidiosa, the agent of the “olive quick decline syndrome”, a disease which is devastating olive orchards in southern Italy. Wolbachia are bacterial symbionts of many insects, frequently as reproductive parasites, sometime by establishing mutualistic relationships, able to spread within host populations. Philaenus spumarius harbors Wolbachia, but the role played by this symbiont is unknown and data on the infection prevalence within host populations are limited. Here, the Wolbachia infection rate was analyzed in relation to the geographic distribution and the genetic diversity of the Italian populations of P. spumarius. Analysis of the COI gene sequences revealed a geographically structured distribution of the three main mitochondrial lineages of P. spumarius. Wolbachia was detected in half of the populations sampled in northern Italy where most individuals belonged to the western-Mediterranean lineage. All populations sampled in southern and central Italy, where the individuals of the eastern-Mediterranean lineage were largely prevalent, were uninfected. Individuals of the north-eastern lineage were found only in populations from the Alps in the northernmost part of Italy, at high altitudes. In this area, Wolbachia infection reached the highest prevalence, with no difference between north-eastern and western-Mediterranean lineage. Analysis of molecular diversity of COI sequences suggested no significant effect of Wolbachia on population genetics of P. spumarius. Using the MLST approach, six new Wolbachia sequence types were identified. Using FISH, Wolbachia were observed within the host’s reproductive tissues and salivary glands. Results obtained led us to discuss the role of Wolbachia in P. spumarius, the factors influencing the geographic distribution of the infection, and the exploitation of Wolbachia for the control of the vector insect to reduce the spread of X. fastidiosa.

cifB-transcript levels largely explain cytoplasmic incompatibility variation across divergent Wolbachia

Divergent hosts often associate with intracellular microbes that influence their fitness. Maternally transmitted Wolbachia bacteria are the most common of these endosymbionts, due largely to cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) that kills uninfected embryos fertilized by Wolbachia-infected males. Closely related infections in females rescue CI, providing a relative fitness advantage that drives Wolbachia to high frequencies. One prophage-associated gene (cifA) governs rescue, and two contribute to CI (cifA and cifB), but CI strength ranges from very strong to very weak for unknown reasons. Here, we investigate CI-strength variation and its mechanistic underpinnings in a phylogenetic context across 20 million years (MY) of Wolbachia evolution in Drosophila hosts diverged up to 50 MY. These Wolbachia encode diverse Cif proteins (100% to 7.4% pairwise similarity), and AlphaFold structural analyses suggest that CifB sequence similarities do not predict structural similarities. We demonstrate that cifB-transcript levels in testes explain CI strength across all but two focal systems. Despite phylogenetic discordance among cifs and the bulk of the Wolbachia genome, closely related Wolbachia tend to cause similar CI strengths and transcribe cifB at similar levels. This indicates that other non-cif regions of the Wolbachia genome modulate cif-transcript levels. CI strength also increases with the length of the host's larval life stage, presumably due to prolonged cif action. Our findings reveal that cifB-transcript levels largely explain CI strength, while highlighting other covariates. Elucidating CI's mechanism contributes to our understanding of Wolbachia spread in natural systems and to improving the efficacy of CI-based biocontrol of arboviruses and agricultural pests globally.

A wMel Wolbachia variant in Aedes aegypti from field-collected Drosophila melanogaster with increased phenotypic stability under heat stress

Mosquito‐borne diseases remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Population replacement strategies involving the wMel strain of Wolbachia are being used widely to control mosquito‐borne diseases. However, these strategies may be influenced by temperature because wMel is vulnerable to heat. wMel infections in Drosophila melanogaster are genetically diverse, but few transinfections of wMel variants have been generated in Aedes aegypti. Here, we successfully transferred a wMel variant (termed wMelM) originating from a field‐collected D. melanogaster into Ae. aegypti. The new wMelM variant (clade I) is genetically distinct from the original wMel transinfection (clade III), and there are no genomic differences between wMelM in its original and transinfected host. We compared wMelM with wMel in its effects on host fitness, temperature tolerance, Wolbachia density, vector competence, cytoplasmic incompatibility and maternal transmission under heat stress in a controlled background. wMelM showed a higher heat tolerance than wMel, likely due to higher overall densities within the mosquito. Both wMel variants had minimal host fitness costs, complete cytoplasmic incompatibility and maternal transmission, and dengue virus blocking under laboratory conditions. Our results highlight phenotypic differences between Wolbachia variants and wMelM shows potential as an alternative strain in areas with strong seasonal temperature fluctuations.

Temperature effects on cellular host-microbe interactions explain continent-wide endosymbiont prevalence

Endosymbioses influence host physiology, reproduction, and fitness, but these relationships require efficient microbe transmission between host generations to persist. Maternally transmitted Wolbachia are the most common known endosymbionts,¹ but their frequencies vary widely within and among host populations for unknown reasons.^2,3 Here, we integrate genomic, cellular, and phenotypic analyses with mathematical models to provide an unexpectedly simple explanation for global wMel Wolbachia prevalence in Drosophila melanogaster. Cooling temperatures decrease wMel cellular abundance at a key stage of host oogenesis, producing temperature-dependent variation in maternal transmission that plausibly explains latitudinal clines of wMel frequencies on multiple continents. wMel sampled from a temperate climate targets the germline more efficiently in the cold than a recently differentiated tropical variant (∼2,200 years ago), indicative of rapid wMel adaptation to climate. Genomic analyses identify a very narrow list of wMel alleles-most notably, a derived stop codon in the major Wolbachia surface protein WspB-that underlie thermal sensitivity of cellular Wolbachia abundance and covary with temperature globally. Decoupling temperate wMel and host genomes further reduces transmission in the cold, a pattern that is characteristic of host-microbe co-adaptation to a temperate climate. Complex interactions among Wolbachia, hosts, and the environment (GxGxE) mediate wMel cellular abundance and maternal transmission, implicating temperature as a key determinant of Wolbachia spread and equilibrium frequencies, in conjunction with Wolbachia effects on host fitness and reproduction.^4,5 Our results motivate the strategic use of locally selected wMel variants for Wolbachia-based biocontrol efforts, which protect millions of individuals from arboviruses that cause human disease.⁶.

Male Age and Wolbachia Dynamics: Investigating How Fast and Why Bacterial Densities and Cytoplasmic Incompatibility Strengths Vary

Endosymbionts can influence host reproduction and fitness to favor their maternal transmission. For example, endosymbiotic Wolbachia bacteria often cause cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) that kills uninfected embryos fertilized by Wolbachia-modified sperm. Infected females can rescue CI, providing them a relative fitness advantage. Wolbachia-induced CI strength varies widely and tends to decrease as host males age. Since strong CI drives Wolbachia to high equilibrium frequencies, understanding how fast and why CI strength declines with male age is crucial to explaining age-dependent CI’s influence on Wolbachia prevalence. Here, we investigate if Wolbachia densities and/or CI gene (cif) expression covary with CI-strength variation and explore covariates of age-dependent Wolbachia-density variation in two classic CI systems. wRi CI strength decreases slowly with Drosophila simulans male age (6%/day), but wMel CI strength decreases very rapidly (19%/day), yielding statistically insignificant CI after only 3 days of Drosophila melanogaster adult emergence. Wolbachia densities and cif expression in testes decrease as wRi-infected males age, but both surprisingly increase as wMel-infected males age, and CI strength declines. We then tested if phage lysis, Octomom copy number (which impacts wMel density), or host immune expression covary with age-dependent wMel densities. Only host immune expression correlated with density. Together, our results identify how fast CI strength declines with male age in two model systems and reveal unique relationships between male age, Wolbachia densities, cif expression, and host immunity. We discuss new hypotheses about the basis of age-dependent CI strength and its contributions to Wolbachia prevalence.

Molecular Evidence Suggests That Wolbachia pipientis (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) is Widely Associated With South American Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae)

Wolbachia pipientis (Hertig) is an endosymbiotic microorganism widespread among arthropods and other invertebrate hosts, and employed in strategies to reduce the incidence of arthropod-borne diseases. Here, we used a PCR-based approach for 16S RNA and wsp genes to investigate the prevalence, geographical distribution, and strains of Wolbachia in sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae), the main vectors of the causative agents of leishmaniasis, from three biomes in Brazil: Amazon, Cerrado, and Caatinga. We found that: 1) Wolbachia DNA is present in most (66.7%) of the sampled sand fly species, including vectors of Leishmania spp. (Ross, Trypanosomatida: Trypanosomatidae), 2) the prevalence of Wolbachia DNA varies among species and populations, 3) some strains of Wolbachia may have wider geographical and host range in South America, and 4) two phylogenetic distinct wsp sequences might represent two novel strains for Wolbachia in South America sand flies. Those findings increase the basic knowledge about Wolbachia in South American sand flies and might foster further researches on its use to reduce the transmission of sand fly-borne parasites.

Wolbachia-Conferred Antiviral Protection Is Determined by Developmental Temperature

Wolbachia is a maternally transmitted bacterium that is widespread in arthropods and filarial nematodes and confers strong antiviral protection in Drosophila melanogaster and other arthropods. Wolbachia-transinfected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are currently being deployed to fight transmission of dengue and Zika viruses. However, the mechanism of antiviral protection and the factors influencing are still not fully understood. Here, we show that temperature modulates Wolbachia-conferred protection in Drosophila melanogaster. Temperature after infection directly impacts Drosophila C virus (DCV) replication and modulates Wolbachia protection. At higher temperatures, viruses proliferate more and are more lethal, while Wolbachia confers lower protection. Strikingly, host developmental temperature is a determinant of Wolbachia-conferred antiviral protection. While there is strong protection when flies develop from egg to adult at 25°C, the protection is highly reduced or abolished when flies develop at 18°C. However, Wolbachia-induced changes during development are not sufficient to limit virus-induced mortality, as Wolbachia is still required to be present in adults at the time of infection. This developmental effect is general, since it was present in different host genotypes, Wolbachia variants, and upon infection with different viruses. Overall, we show that Wolbachia-conferred antiviral protection is temperature dependent, being present or absent depending on the environmental conditions. This interaction likely impacts Wolbachia-host interactions in nature and, as a result, frequencies of host and symbionts in different climates. Dependence of Wolbachia-mediated pathogen blocking on developmental temperature could be used to dissect the mechanistic bases of protection and influence the deployment of Wolbachia to prevent transmission of arboviruses. IMPORTANCE Insects are often infected with beneficial intracellular bacteria. The bacterium Wolbachia is extremely common in insects and can protect them from pathogenic viruses. This effect is being used to prevent transmission of dengue and Zika viruses by Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes. To understand the biology of insects in the wild, we need to discover which factors affect Wolbachia-conferred antiviral protection. Here, we show that the temperature at which insects develop from eggs to adults can determine the presence or absence of antiviral protection. The environment, therefore, strongly influences this insect-bacterium interaction. Our work may help to provide insights into the mechanism of viral blocking by Wolbachia, deepen our understanding of the geographical distribution of host and symbiont, and incentivize further research on the temperature dependence of Wolbachia-conferred protection for control of mosquito-borne disease.

Frequent Drivers, Occasional Passengers: Signals of Symbiont-Driven Seasonal Adaptation and Hitchhiking in the Pea Aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum

Insects harbor a variety of maternally inherited bacterial symbionts. As such, variation in symbiont presence/absence, in the combinations of harbored symbionts, and in the genotypes of harbored symbiont species provide heritable genetic variation of potential use in the insects' adaptive repertoires. Understanding the natural importance of symbionts is challenging but studying their dynamics over time can help to elucidate the potential for such symbiont-driven insect adaptation. Toward this end, we studied the seasonal dynamics of six maternally transferred bacterial symbiont species in the multivoltine pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). Our sampling focused on six alfalfa fields in southeastern Pennsylvania, and spanned 14 timepoints within the 2012 growing season, in addition to two overwintering periods. To test and generate hypotheses on the natural relevance of these non-essential symbionts, we examined whether symbiont dynamics correlated with any of ten measured environmental variables from the 2012 growing season, including some of known importance in the lab. We found that five symbionts changed prevalence across one or both overwintering periods, and that the same five species underwent such frequency shifts across the 2012 growing season. Intriguingly, the frequencies of these dynamic symbionts showed robust correlations with a subset of our measured environmental variables. Several of these trends supported the natural relevance of lab-discovered symbiont roles, including anti-pathogen defense. For a seventh symbiont-Hamiltonella defensa-studied previously across the same study periods, we tested whether a reported correlation between prevalence and temperature stemmed not from thermally varying host-level fitness effects, but from selection on co-infecting symbionts or on aphid-encoded alleles associated with this bacterium. In general, such "hitchhiking" effects were not evident during times with strongly correlated Hamiltonella and temperature shifts. However, we did identify at least one time period in which Hamiltonella spread was likely driven by selection on a co-infecting symbiont-Rickettsiella viridis. Recognizing the broader potential for such hitchhiking, we explored selection on co-infecting symbionts as a possible driver behind the dynamics of the remaining six species. Out of twelve examined instances of symbiont dynamics unfolding across 2-week periods or overwintering spans, we found eight in which the focal symbiont underwent parallel frequency shifts under single infection and one or more co-infection contexts. This supported the idea that phenotypic variation created by the presence/absence of individual symbionts is a direct target for selection, and that symbiont effects can be robust under co-habitation with other symbionts. Contrastingly, in two cases, we found that selection may target phenotypes emerging from symbiont co-infections, with specific species combinations driving overall trends for the focal dynamic symbionts, without correlated change under single infection. Finally, in three cases-including the one described above for Hamiltonella-our data suggested that incidental co-infection with a (dis)favored symbiont could lead to large frequency shifts for "passenger" symbionts, conferring no apparent cost or benefit. Such hitchhiking has rarely been studied in heritable symbiont systems. We propose that it is more common than appreciated, given the widespread nature of maternally inherited bacteria, and the frequency of multi-species symbiotic communities across insects.

Testing the potential contribution of Wolbachia to speciation when cytoplasmic incompatibility becomes associated with host-related reproductive isolation

Endosymbiont‐induced cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) may play an important role in arthropod speciation. However, whether CI consistently becomes associated or coupled with other host‐related forms of reproductive isolation (RI) to impede the transfer of endosymbionts between hybridizing populations and further the divergence process remains an open question. Here, we show that varying degrees of pre‐ and postmating RI exist among allopatric populations of two interbreeding cherry‐infesting tephritid fruit flies (Rhagoletis cingulata and R. indifferens) across North America. These flies display allochronic and sexual isolation among populations, as well as unidirectional reductions in egg hatch in hybrid crosses involving southwestern USA males. All populations are infected by a Wolbachia strain, wCin2, whereas a second strain, wCin3, only co‐infects flies from the southwest USA and Mexico. Strain wCin3 is associated with a unique mitochondrial DNA haplotype and unidirectional postmating RI, implicating the strain as the cause of CI. When coupled with nonendosymbiont RI barriers, we estimate the strength of CI associated with wCin3 would not prevent the strain from introgressing from infected southwestern to uninfected populations elsewhere in the USA if populations were to come into secondary contact and hybridize. In contrast, cytoplasmic–nuclear coupling may impede the transfer of wCin3 if Mexican and USA populations were to come into contact. We discuss our results in the context of the general paucity of examples demonstrating stable Wolbachia hybrid zones and whether the spread of Wolbachia among taxa can be constrained in natural hybrid zones long enough for the endosymbiont to participate in speciation.

Wolbachia in the spittlebug Prosapia ignipectus: Variable infection frequencies, but no apparent effect on host reproductive isolation

Animals serve as hosts for complex communities of microorganisms, including endosymbionts that live inside their cells. Wolbachia bacteria are perhaps the most common endosymbionts, manipulating host reproduction to propagate. Many Wolbachia cause cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), which results in reduced egg hatch when uninfected females mate with infected males. Wolbachia that cause intense CI spread to high and relatively stable frequencies, while strains that cause weak or no CI tend to persist at intermediate, often variable, frequencies. Wolbachia could also contribute to host reproductive isolation (RI), although current support for such contributions is limited to a few systems. To test for Wolbachia frequency variation and effects on host RI, we sampled several local Prosapia ignipectus (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) spittlebug populations in the northeastern United States over two years, including closely juxtaposed Maine populations with different monomorphic color forms, "black" and "lined." We discovered a group-B Wolbachia (wPig) infecting P. ignipectus that diverged from group-A Wolbachia-like model wMel and wRi strains in Drosophila-6 to 46 MYA. Populations of the sister species Prosapia bicincta (Say) from Hawaii and Florida are uninfected, suggesting that P. ignipectus acquired wPig after their initial divergence. wPig frequencies were generally high and variable among sites and between years. While phenotyping wPig effects on host reproduction is not currently feasible, the wPig genome contains three divergent sets of CI loci, consistent with high wPig frequencies. Finally, Maine monomorphic black and monomorphic lined populations of P. ignipectus share both wPig and mtDNA haplotypes, implying no apparent effect of wPig on the maintenance of this morphological contact zone. We hypothesize P. ignipectus acquired wPig horizontally as observed for many Drosophila species, and that significant CI and variable transmission produce high but variable wPig frequencies.

Wolbachia as translational science: controlling mosquito-borne pathogens

In this review we examine how exploiting the Wolbachia-mosquito relationship has become an increasingly popular strategy for controlling arbovirus transmission. Field deployments of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes have led to significant decreases in dengue virus incidence via high levels of mosquito population suppression and replacement, emphasizing the success of Wolbachia approaches. Here, we examine how improved knowledge of Wolbachia-host interactions has provided key insight into the mechanisms of the essential phenotypes of pathogen blocking and cytoplasmic incompatibility. And we discuss recent studies demonstrating that extrinsic factors, such as ambient temperature, can modulate Wolbachia density and maternal transmission. Finally, we assess the prospects of using Wolbachia to control other vectors and agricultural pest species.

Living in the endosymbiotic world of Wolbachia: A centennial review

The most widespread intracellular bacteria in the animal kingdom are maternally inherited endosymbionts of the genus Wolbachia. Their prevalence in arthropods and nematodes worldwide and stunning arsenal of parasitic and mutualistic adaptations make these bacteria a biological archetype for basic studies of symbiosis and applied outcomes for curbing human and agricultural diseases. Here, we conduct a summative, centennial analysis of living in the Wolbachia world. We synthesize literature on Wolbachia's host range, phylogenetic diversity, genomics, cell biology, and applications to filarial, arboviral, and agricultural diseases. We also review the mobilome of Wolbachia including phage WO and its essentiality to hallmark reproductive phenotypes in arthropods. Finally, the Wolbachia system is an exemplar for discovery-based science education using biodiversity, biotechnology, and bioinformatics lessons. As we approach a century of Wolbachia research, the interdisciplinary science of this symbiosis stands as a model for consolidating and teaching the integrative rules of endosymbiotic life.

Living in the endosymbiotic world of Wolbachia: A centennial review

The most widespread intracellular bacteria in the animal kingdom are maternally inherited endosymbionts of the genus Wolbachia. Their prevalence in arthropods and nematodes worldwide and stunning arsenal of parasitic and mutualistic adaptations make these bacteria a biological archetype for basic studies of symbiosis and applied outcomes for curbing human and agricultural diseases. Here, we conduct a summative, centennial analysis of living in the Wolbachia world. We synthesize literature on Wolbachia's host range, phylogenetic diversity, genomics, cell biology, and applications to filarial, arboviral, and agricultural diseases. We also review the mobilome of Wolbachia including phage WO and its essentiality to hallmark reproductive phenotypes in arthropods. Finally, the Wolbachia system is an exemplar for discovery-based science education using biodiversity, biotechnology, and bioinformatics lessons. As we approach a century of Wolbachia research, the interdisciplinary science of this symbiosis stands as a model for consolidating and teaching the integrative rules of endosymbiotic life.

A Review: Aedes-Borne Arboviral Infections, Controls and Wolbachia-Based Strategies

Arthropod-borne viruses (Arboviruses) continue to generate significant health and economic burdens for people living in endemic regions. Of these viruses, some of the most important (e.g., dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow fever virus), are transmitted mainly by Aedes mosquitoes. Over the years, viral infection control has targeted vector population reduction and inhibition of arboviral replication and transmission. This control includes the vector control methods which are classified into chemical, environmental, and biological methods. Some of these control methods may be largely experimental (both field and laboratory investigations) or widely practised. Perceptively, one of the biological methods of vector control, in particular, Wolbachia-based control, shows a promising control strategy for eradicating Aedes-borne arboviruses. This can either be through the artificial introduction of Wolbachia, a naturally present bacterium that impedes viral growth in mosquitoes into heterologous Aedes aegypti mosquito vectors (vectors that are not natural hosts of Wolbachia) thereby limiting arboviral transmission or via Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, which naturally harbour Wolbachia infection. These strategies are potentially undermined by the tendency of mosquitoes to lose Wolbachia infection in unfavourable weather conditions (e.g., high temperature) and the inhibitory competitive dynamics among co-circulating Wolbachia strains. The main objective of this review was to critically appraise published articles on vector control strategies and specifically highlight the use of Wolbachia-based control to suppress vector population growth or disrupt viral transmission. We retrieved studies on the control strategies for arboviral transmissions via arthropod vectors and discussed the use of Wolbachia control strategies for eradicating arboviral diseases to identify literature gaps that will be instrumental in developing models to estimate the impact of these control strategies and, in essence, the use of different Wolbachia strains and features.

Pervasive Effects of Wolbachia on Host Temperature Preference

Heritable symbionts can modify a range of ecologically important host traits, including behavior. About half of all insect species are infected with maternally transmitted Wolbachia, a bacterial endosymbiont known to alter host reproduction, nutrient acquisition, and virus susceptibility. Here, we broadly test the hypothesis that Wolbachia modifies host behavior by assessing the effects of eight different Wolbachia strains on the temperature preference of six Drosophila melanogaster subgroup species. Four of the seven host genotypes infected with A-group Wolbachia strains (wRi in Drosophila simulans, wHa in D. simulans, wSh in Drosophila sechellia, and wTei in Drosophila teissieri) prefer significantly cooler temperatures relative to uninfected genotypes. Contrastingly, when infected with divergent B-group wMau, Drosophila mauritiana prefers a warmer temperature. For most strains, changes to host temperature preference do not alter Wolbachia titer. However, males infected with wSh and wTei tend to experience an increase in titer when shifted to a cooler temperature for 24 h, suggesting that Wolbachia-induced changes to host behavior may promote bacterial replication. Our results indicate that Wolbachia modifications to host temperature preference are likely widespread, which has important implications for insect thermoregulation and physiology. Understanding the fitness consequences of these Wolbachia effects is crucial for predicting evolutionary outcomes of host-symbiont interactions, including how Wolbachia spreads to become common.IMPORTANCE Microbes infect a diversity of species, influencing the performance and fitness of their hosts. Maternally transmitted Wolbachia bacteria infect most insects and other arthropods, making these bacteria some of the most common endosymbionts in nature. Despite their global prevalence, it remains mostly unknown how Wolbachia influence host physiology and behavior to proliferate. We demonstrate pervasive effects of Wolbachia on Drosophila temperature preference. Most hosts infected with A-group Wolbachia prefer cooler temperatures, whereas the one host species infected with divergent B-group Wolbachia prefers warmer temperatures, relative to uninfected genotypes. Changes to host temperature preference generally do not alter Wolbachia abundance in host tissues, but for some A-group strains, adult males have increased Wolbachia titer when shifted to a cooler temperature. This suggests that Wolbachia-induced changes to host behavior may promote bacterial replication. Our results help elucidate the impact of endosymbionts on their hosts amid the global Wolbachia pandemic.