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Shimabuku QL, Arakawa FS, Fernandes Silva M, Ferri Coldebella P, Ueda-Nakamura T, Fagundes-Klen MR, Bergamasco R. Water treatment with exceptional virus inactivation using activated carbon modified with silver (Ag) and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2017; 38:2058-2069. [PMID: 27766917 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2016.1245361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Continuous flow experiments (450 mL min-1) were performed in household filter in order to investigate the removal and/or inactivation of T4 bacteriophage, using granular activated carbon (GAC) modified with silver and/or copper oxide nanoparticles at different concentrations. GAC and modified GAC were characterized by X-ray diffractometry, specific surface area, pore size and volume, pore average diameter, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, zeta potential and atomic absorption spectroscopy. The antiviral activity of the produced porous media was evaluated by passing suspensions of T4 bacteriophage (∼105 UFP/mL) through filters. The filtered water was analyzed for the presence of the bacteriophage and the release of silver and copper oxide. The porous media containing silver and copper oxide nanoparticles showed high inactivation capacity, even reaching reductions higher than 3 log. GAC6 (GAC/Ag0.5%Cu1.0%) was effective in the bacteriophage inactivation, reaching 5.53 log reduction. The levels of silver and copper released in filtered water were below the recommended limits (100 ppb for silver and 1000 ppb for copper) in drinking water. From this study, it is possible to conclude that activated carbon modified with silver and copper oxide nanoparticles can be used as a filter for virus removal in the treatment of drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quelen Letícia Shimabuku
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil
- b Department of Chemical Engineering , University of West Parana , Toledo , Paraná , Brazil
| | - Flávia Sayuri Arakawa
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil
| | - Marcela Fernandes Silva
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil
| | | | - Tânia Ueda-Nakamura
- c Department of Basic Health Sciences , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil
| | | | - Rosangela Bergamasco
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil
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Gerba CP, Abd-Elmaksoud S, Newick H, El-Esnawy NA, Barakat A, Ghanem H. Assessment of coliphage surrogates for testing drinking water treatment devices. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2015; 7:27-31. [PMID: 25399400 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-014-9173-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Test protocols have been developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) to test water treatment devices/systems that are used at the individual and home levels to ensure the removal of waterborne viruses. The goal of this study was to assess if coliphage surrogates could be used in this testing in place of the currently required use of animal or human enteric viruses. Five different coliphages (MS-2, PRD1, ΦX-174, Qβ, and fr) were compared to the removal of poliovirus type 1 (LSc-2ab) by eight different water treatment devices/systems using a general case and a challenge case (high organic load, dissolved solids, and turbidity) test water as defined by the USEPA. The performance of the units was rated as a pass/fail based on a 4 log removal/inactivation of the viruses. In all cases, a failure or a pass of the units/system for poliovirus also corresponded to a pass/fail by all of the coliphages. In summary, in using pass/fail criteria as recommended under USEPA guidelines for testing water treatment device/systems, the use of coliphages should be considered as an alternative to reduce cost and time of testing such devices/systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona,
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Loo SL, Fane AG, Krantz WB, Lim TT. Emergency water supply: a review of potential technologies and selection criteria. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:3125-51. [PMID: 22521949 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2011] [Revised: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Access to safe drinking water is one of the first priorities following a disaster. However, providing drinking water to the affected population (AP) is challenging due to severe contamination and lack of access to infrastructure. An onsite treatment system for the AP is a more sustainable solution than transporting bottled water. Emergency water technologies (WTs) that are modular, mobile or portable are suitable for emergency relief. This paper reviews WTs including membrane technologies that are suitable for use in emergencies. Physical, chemical, thermal- and light-based treatment methods, and membrane technologies driven by different driving forces such as pressure, temperature and osmotic gradients are reviewed. Each WT is evaluated by ten mutually independent criteria: costs, ease of deployment, ease of use, maintenance, performance, potential acceptance, energy requirements, supply chain requirements, throughput and environmental impact. A scoring system based on these criteria is presented. A methodology for emergency WT selection based on compensatory multi-criteria analysis is developed and discussed. Finally, critical research needs are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siew-Leng Loo
- Singapore Membrane Technology Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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Jones EL, Gaither M, Kramer A, Gerba CP. An analysis of water quality in the Colorado River, 2003-04; an investigation into recurring outbreaks of norovirus among rafters. Wilderness Environ Med 2009; 20:6-13. [PMID: 19364162 DOI: 10.1580/06-weme-or-43.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Every year over 22 000 people raft the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon in Arizona. Since 1994, over 400 rafters in 6 separate outbreaks have become ill with norovirus while rafting this stretch of the river. OBJECTIVES To assess potential causes of these outbreaks, Colorado River water, water from nearby wastewater treatment plants, and a drinking water source were sampled and tested for norovirus and other water quality indicators. METHODS Colorado River water was collected and sampled during the 2004 rafting season. Water from wastewater treatment plants near the Lee's Ferry launch site and drinking water from the Lee's Ferry launch site were also examined during the 2003 and 2004 rafting seasons. Stool samples from ill rafters and composite stool samples from onboard toilet-cans were tested for the presence of norovirus during the 2003 and 2004 outbreaks. Parameters examined included the following: norovirus by reverse transcriptase- polymerase chain reaction, coliforms, Escherichia coli, temperature, turbidity, and pH. RESULTS No norovirus was detected in the Colorado River during the 2004 field sampling. Norovirus was detected in the Glen Canyon Dam Wastewater Treatment Plant on one occasion in 2004. Drinking water from the Lee's Ferry launch site was negative for norovirus in 2003, and Colorado River water from the Lee's Ferry launch site was negative for norovirus in 2004. In 2003, 3 of 10 stool samples from ill rafters or onboard toilet-cans were positive for norovirus. Neither of 2 stool samples collected in 2004 was positive for norovirus. CONCLUSIONS Colorado River water tested during nonoutbreak periods was negative for norovirus, indicating that there is not an ongoing high level of norovirus contamination in the river. No source or sources of contamination could be identified from the testing. Potential sources of norovirus outbreaks among rafters include drinking contaminated river water, consuming contaminated foodstuff, rafter importation of the virus and subsequent person-to-person spread, and contaminated fomites, campsites, or equipment. It is likely outbreaks are the result of more than one source of norovirus, and the exact source remains unknown for several outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen L Jones
- Department of Soil, Water, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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Water disinfection in the mountains – state of the art recommendation paper of the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme Medical Commission. Travel Med Infect Dis 2009; 7:7-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2008] [Revised: 11/06/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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McLaughlin MR, Brooks JP. Recovery of Salmonella from bermudagrass exposed to simulated wastewater. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2009; 38:337-42. [PMID: 19141824 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2008.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Most confined swine (Sus scrofa) feeding operations in the southeastern United States hold manure in lagoons and apply effluent on bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] as fertilizer. Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica (ex Kauffman and Edwards) Le Minor and Popoff, has been reported in Mississippi lagoons, but levels and potential for contamination of bermudagrass were unknown. A laboratory method was developed to examine Salmonella contamination of bermudagrass and levels of Salmonella were determined in lagoons. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) worst case water was used to simulate effluent in exposing bermudagrass to Salmonella. Exposed leaves were washed and bacteria enumerated. Contamination of leaves exposed to 10(6) cfu mL(-1) varied from 0 to 10(4) cfu per leaf within and among eight bermudagrass cultivars and five Salmonella isolates. No differences (P < 0.05) occurred between cultivars (n = 20) or isolates (n = 10). Data fitted (R2 = 0.93) to a contamination equation (y = 5 x 10(-6)X6.623) described the relationship between levels (Log10 cfu mL(-1)) of exposure (x) and contamination (y). In fall 2007 Salmonella levels from six lagoons ranged from 1.9 to 2.8 log10 MPN 100 mL(-1) and were below the threshold for contamination predicted by the equation. These preliminary results must be tested with effluents in the field, but considered alongside work of others, which report lagoon Salmonella levels to be highest in fall, suggest that Salmonella levels in effluents from these lagoons may be too low to produce measurable contamination on bermudagrass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R McLaughlin
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Genetics and Precision Agriculture Research Unit, P.O. Box 5367, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Gerba CP, Naranjo JE, Jones EL. Virus Removal from Water by a Portable Water Treatment Device. Wilderness Environ Med 2008; 19:45-9. [DOI: 10.1580/07-weme-br-109.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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McLaughlin MR, Brooks JP. EPA worst case water microcosms for testing phage biocontrol of Salmonella. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2008; 37:266-271. [PMID: 18178900 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2007.0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A microplate method was developed as a tool to test phages for their ability to control Salmonella in aqueous environments. The method used EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) worst case water (WCW) in 96-well plates. The WCW provided a consistent and relatively simple defined turbid aqueous matrix, high in total organic carbon (TOC) and total dissolved salts (TDS), to simulate swine lagoon effluent, without the inconvenience of malodor and confounding effects from other biological factors. The WCW was originally defined to simulate high turbidity and organic matter in water for testing point-of-use filtration devices. Use of WCW to simulate lagoon effluent for phage testing is a new and innovative application of this matrix. Control of physical and chemical parameters (TOC, TDS, turbidity, temperature, and pH) allowed precise evaluation of microbiological parameters (Salmonella and phages). In a typical application, wells containing WCW were loaded with Salmonella enterica susp. enterica serovar Typhimurium (ATCC14028) and treated with phages alone and in cocktail combinations. Mean Salmonella inactivation rates (k, where the lower the value, the greater the inactivation) of phage treatments ranged from -0.32 to -1.60 versus -0.004 for Salmonella controls. Mean log(10) reductions (the lower the value, the greater the reduction) of Salmonella phage treatments were -1.60 for phage PR04-1, -2.14 for phage PR37-96, and -2.14 for both phages in a sequential cocktail, versus -0.08 for Salmonella controls. The WCW microcosm system was an effective tool for evaluating the biocontrol potential of Salmonella phages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R McLaughlin
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Waste Management and Forage Research Unit, POB 5367, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Snelling WJ, Moore JE, McKenna JP, Lecky DM, Dooley JSG. Bacterial-protozoa interactions; an update on the role these phenomena play towards human illness. Microbes Infect 2005; 8:578-87. [PMID: 16298155 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2005] [Revised: 08/05/2005] [Accepted: 08/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The usage of water with poor microbiological quality increases the risk of human illness. This review discusses and updates current thinking on the nature of the interaction between a range of human bacterial pathogens and waterborne protozoa. The importance of protozoa acting as protective environments for pathogenic bacteria from disinfection and of promoting extended survival in otherwise hostile environments is highlighted. The significance of biofilms in water systems, and new relationships between Salmonella and Campylobacter and water-borne protozoa are also discussed. The protection of pathogenic bacteria from disinfection within protozoa and/or biofilms has important implications for water safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Snelling
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Co., Londonderry, Northern Ireland BT52 1SA, UK.
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Backer H. Water disinfection for international and wilderness travelers. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:355-64. [PMID: 11774083 DOI: 10.1086/324747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2001] [Revised: 09/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Acquisition of waterborne disease is a substantial risk for international travelers to countries with inadequate sanitation facilities. It also poses smaller but still significant risks for wilderness travelers who rely on surface water in developed countries with low rates of diarrheal illness, such as the United States. This article reviews the etiology and risks associated with waterborne disease that might be encountered by both types of travelers. It also summarizes--and makes recommendations for--the various water-treatment methods available to travelers for reducing their risk of contracting waterborne disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard Backer
- Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA.
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Schlosser O, Robert C, Bourderioux C, Rey M, de Roubin MR. Bacterial removal from inexpensive portable water treatment systems for travelers. J Travel Med 2001; 8:12-8. [PMID: 11182604 DOI: 10.2310/7060.2001.5143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are many personal portable water treatment systems for travelers on the market, including chemical agents, iodine resin purifiers and filters. However, information on the real efficacy of these systems in the field is often lacking. We have therefore estimated the capabilities of several inexpensive personal portable water treatment systems for travelers to remove bacteria in various situations of water quality, using stressed indigenous strains of bacteria. METHODS Four chemical agents (Drinkwell chlorine, Hydroclonazone, Aquatabs, 2% iodine in ethanol), two iodine resin purifiers (the straw PentaPure Outdoor M1-E, the PentaPure Traveler purifying and filtration system) and four filters (the flexible bottle Pres2Pure, the hand-pump filters Mini Ceramic, First Need Deluxe and WalkAbout) were evaluated in triplicate using both turbid and clear water at 25 degrees C. Bacteria were counted by conventional culturing techniques, colorimetric and fluorescent assays of coliforms and Escherichia coli enzyme activities (Colilert)/Quantitray method), and viable but not culturable bacteria were assessed quantitatively by 5-cyano-2,3-dilotyl-tetrazolium staining. RESULTS The best systems were the three hand-pump filters, Mini Ceramic, First Need Deluxe, and WalkAbout. All had a submicron filtration element that completely removed 3 log (99.9%) or more of viable bacteria, and no coliforms or E. coli were detected in the effluent. The PentaPure Traveler removed more than 99.3% of the viable bacteria. The only chemical agents that gave a bacterial inactivation of over 2 log in clear water were the Drinkwell chlorine, the Aquatabs, and the 2% iodine in ethanol. The three other devices, Hydroclonazone, Outdoor M1-E, and Pres2Pure, performed poorly, as coliforms and E. coli were detected in the treated water by the Colilert method. The chemical agents and the iodine resin straw performed poorly on raw river water; coliforms and E. coli were detected in the treated water. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate the differences between the systems tested. The effectiveness of other devices on the market should also be tested, so as to help travelers and hikers select the most appropriate portable water treatment system.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Schlosser
- Department of Medical Services, Vivendi, Paris, France
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