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Zhang S, Wang T, Feng Y, Li F, Qu A, Guan X, Wang H, Xu D. Pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile negatively regulates hippocampal cytochrome P450 enzymes and ameliorates phenytoin-induced hippocampal neurotoxicity. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1510-1525. [PMID: 38223454 PMCID: PMC10785155 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system is susceptible to the modulation of various neurophysiological processes by the cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP), which plays a crucial role in the metabolism of neurosteroids. The antiepileptic drug phenytoin (PHT) has been observed to induce neuronal side effects in patients, which could be attributed to its induction of CYP expression and testosterone (TES) metabolism in the hippocampus. While pregnane X receptor (PXR) is widely known for its regulatory function of CYPs in the liver, we have discovered that the treatment of mice with pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile (PCN), a PXR agonist, has differential effects on CYP expression in the liver and hippocampus. Specifically, the PCN treatment resulted in the induction of cytochrome P450, family 3, subfamily a, polypeptide 11 (CYP3A11), and CYP2B10 expression in the liver, while suppressing their expression in the hippocampus. Functionally, the PCN treatment protected mice from PHT-induced hippocampal nerve injury, which was accompanied by the inhibition of TES metabolism in the hippocampus. Mechanistically, we found that the inhibition of hippocampal CYP expression and attenuation of PHT-induced neurotoxicity by PCN were glucocorticoid receptor dependent, rather than PXR independent, as demonstrated by genetic and pharmacological models. In conclusion, our study provides evidence that PCN can negatively regulate hippocampal CYP expression and attenuate PHT-induced hippocampal neurotoxicity independently of PXR. Our findings suggest that glucocorticoids may be a potential therapeutic strategy for managing the neuronal side effects of PHT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhang
- Department of Obstetric, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Tingting Wang
- Department of Obstetric, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Ye Feng
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Fei Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Aijuan Qu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, China
- Key Laboratory of Remodeling-related Cardiovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100069, China
| | - Xiuchen Guan
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Stomatology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Dan Xu
- Department of Obstetric, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Disease, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
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Surcheva S, Marchev S, Tashev R, Belcheva S, Vlaskovska M. Action of adrenal and gonadal steroid hormones on kainic acid-evoked seizures in a rat model of epileptogenesis. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2017.1376598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Slavina Surcheva
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Stanislav Marchev
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Roman Tashev
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Stilyana Belcheva
- Department of Behavioural Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Neurobiology, Sofia, Bulgaria
- Department of Special Education and Logopaedics, Faculty of Pre-school and Primary School Education, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Mila Vlaskovska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
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The influence of ovariectomy on anti-convulsant effect of pioglitazone in mice. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2015; 22:159-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Heiry M, Afra P, Matsuo F, Greenlee JE, Clardy SL. Improvement of GAD65-associated autoimmune epilepsy with testosterone replacement therapy. NEUROLOGY-NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2015; 2:e142. [PMID: 26309902 PMCID: PMC4537310 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000000142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Heiry
- Department of Neurology (M.H., P.A., F.M., J.E.G., S.L.C.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City; and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (J.E.G., S.L.C.), Salt Lake City, UT
| | - Pegah Afra
- Department of Neurology (M.H., P.A., F.M., J.E.G., S.L.C.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City; and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (J.E.G., S.L.C.), Salt Lake City, UT
| | - Fumisuke Matsuo
- Department of Neurology (M.H., P.A., F.M., J.E.G., S.L.C.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City; and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (J.E.G., S.L.C.), Salt Lake City, UT
| | - John E Greenlee
- Department of Neurology (M.H., P.A., F.M., J.E.G., S.L.C.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City; and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (J.E.G., S.L.C.), Salt Lake City, UT
| | - Stacey L Clardy
- Department of Neurology (M.H., P.A., F.M., J.E.G., S.L.C.), University of Utah, Salt Lake City; and Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (J.E.G., S.L.C.), Salt Lake City, UT
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Hosseini M, Sadeghnia HR, Salehabadi S, Soukhtanloo M. Contribution of estradiol in sex-dependent differences of pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 100:237-45. [PMID: 23524184 DOI: 10.1556/aphysiol.100.2013.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present study the contribution of estradiol in sex-dependent differences of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures was investigated in rats. The rats were divided into four groups: 1) sham, 2) ovariectomized (OVX), 3) ovariectomized-estradiol (OVX-Est) and 4) male. The OVX-Est group received estradiol valerate (2 mg/kg; i.m/4 weeks) while, male, sham and OVX groups received vehicle. The animals were injected by PTZ (90 mg/kg). The latencies to minimal clonic seizures (MCS) and generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), were recorded. Serum 17β-estradiol and testosterone levels were also determined using an Elisa kit. GTCS latency in OVX rats was higher than in sham-operated animals (P < 0.05). MCS and GTCS latency in the male group was significantly higher than in the sham, OVX and OVX-Est groups (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01). There was no significant difference in MCS or GTCS latencies among OVX-Est, sham and OVX groups. Serum 17β-estradiol level in the OVX group was significantly lower than in the sham (P < 0.01) and in the OVX-Est group it was higher than in the sham, OVX and male groups (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001). Serum testosterone level in the male group was significantly higher than in all the other three groups (P < 0.001). It seems that testosterone probably has a more efficient role than estradiol in the gender dependent difference in seizure caused by PTZ in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Hosseini
- Mashhad University of Medical Sciences Neuroscience Research Center & Department of Physiology, School of Medicine Mashhad Iran Mashhad University Medical Sciences Department of Physiology, Scool of Medicine Mashhad Iran
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Testosterone depletion in adult male rats increases mossy fiber transmission, LTP, and sprouting in area CA3 of hippocampus. J Neurosci 2013; 33:2338-55. [PMID: 23392664 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3857-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Androgens have dramatic effects on neuronal structure and function in hippocampus. However, androgen depletion does not always lead to hippocampal impairment. To address this apparent paradox, we evaluated the hippocampus of adult male rats after gonadectomy (Gdx) or sham surgery. Surprisingly, Gdx rats showed increased synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation of the mossy fiber (MF) pathway. Gdx rats also exhibited increased excitability and MF sprouting. We then addressed the possible underlying mechanisms and found that Gdx induced a long-lasting upregulation of MF BDNF immunoreactivity. Antagonism of Trk receptors, which bind neurotrophins, such as BDNF, reversed the increase in MF transmission, excitability, and long-term potentiation in Gdx rats, but there were no effects of Trk antagonism in sham controls. To determine which androgens were responsible, the effects of testosterone metabolites DHT and 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol were examined. Exposure of slices to 50 nm DHT decreased the effects of Gdx on MF transmission, but 50 nm 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol had no effect. Remarkably, there was no effect of DHT in control males. The data suggest that a Trk- and androgen receptor-sensitive form of MF transmission and synaptic plasticity emerges after Gdx. We suggest that androgens may normally be important in area CA3 to prevent hyperexcitability and aberrant axon outgrowth but limit MF synaptic transmission and some forms of plasticity. The results also suggest a potential explanation for the maintenance of hippocampal-dependent cognitive function after androgen depletion: a reduction in androgens may lead to compensatory upregulation of MF transmission and plasticity.
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Velíšková J, Desantis KA. Sex and hormonal influences on seizures and epilepsy. Horm Behav 2013; 63:267-77. [PMID: 22504305 PMCID: PMC3424285 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Epilepsy is the third most common chronic neurological disorder. Clinical and experimental evidence supports the role of sex and influence of sex hormones on seizures and epilepsy as well as alterations of the endocrine system and levels of sex hormones by epileptiform activity. Conversely, seizures are sensitive to changes in sex hormone levels, which in turn may affect the seizure-induced neuronal damage. The effects of reproductive hormones on neuronal excitability and seizure-induced damage are complex to contradictory and depend on different mechanisms, which have to be accounted for in data interpretation. Both estradiol and progesterone/allopregnanolone may have beneficial effects for patients with epilepsy. Individualized hormonal therapy should be considered as adjunctive treatment in patients with epilepsy to improve seizure control as well as quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Velíšková
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA.
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Hunter JM, Cirrito JR, Restivo JL, Kinley RD, Sullivan PM, Holtzman DM, Koger D, Delong C, Lin S, Zhao L, Liu F, Bales K, Paul SM. Emergence of a seizure phenotype in aged apolipoprotein epsilon 4 targeted replacement mice. Brain Res 2012; 1467:120-32. [PMID: 22682924 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.05.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The apolipoprotein ε4 allele is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is associated with earlier age of onset. The incidence of spontaneous seizures has been reported to be increased in sporadic AD as well as in the early onset autosomal dominant forms of AD. We now report the emergence of a seizure phenotype in aged apolipoprotein E4 (apoE4) targeted replacement (TR) mice but not in age-matched apoE2 TR or apoE3 TR mice. Tonic-clonic seizures developed spontaneously after 5 months of age in apoE4 TR mice and are triggered by mild stress. Female mice had increased seizure penetrance compared to male mice, but had slightly reduced overall seizure severity. The majority of seizures were characterized by head and neck jerks, but 25% of aged apoE4 TR mice had more severe tonic-clonic seizures which occasionally progressed to tonic extension and death. Aged apoE4 TR mice progressed through pentylenetetrazol-induced seizure stages more rapidly than did apoE3 TR and apoE2 TR mice. Electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings revealed more frequent bursts of synchronous theta activity in the hippocampus of apoE4 TR mice than in apoE2 TR or apoE3 TR mice. Cortical EEG recordings also revealed sharp spikes and other abnormalities in apoE4 TR mice. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the emergence of an age-dependent seizure phenotype in old apoE4 TR mice in the absence of human amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) overexpression, suggesting increased central nervous system neural network excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse M Hunter
- Neuroscience Discovery, Eli Lilly and Co., Indianapolis, IN 46285, USA.
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Contraceptive Case Studies: 2011 CDC Medicare Eligibility Criteria. J Nurse Pract 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nurpra.2012.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Meyer RP, Gehlhaus M. A role for CYP in the drug–hormone crosstalk of the brain. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6:675-87. [DOI: 10.1517/17425251003680791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Meyer RP, Pantazis G, Killer N, Bürck C, Schwab R, Brandt M, Knoth R, Gehlhaus M. Xenobiotics in the limbic system--affecting brain's network function. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2010; 82:87-106. [PMID: 20472134 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(10)82005-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Xenobiotic compounds enter the brain through nutrition, environmentals, and drugs. In order to maintain intrinsic homeostasis, the brain has to adapt to xenobiotic influx. Among others, steroid hormones appear as crucial mediators in this process. However, especially in the therapy of neurological diseases or brain tumors, long-term application of neuroactive drugs is advised. Several clinically important malignancies based on hormonal dysbalance rise up after treatment with neuroactive drugs, for example, sexual and mental disorders or severe cognitive changes. A drug-hormone cross talk proceeding over drug-mediated cytochrome P450 induction predominantly in the limbic system and the blood-brain barrier, consequently altered steroid hormone metabolism, and P450-mediated change of steroid hormone receptor expression and signaling may serve as an explanation for such disorders. Especially, the interplay between the expression of AR and P450 at the blood-brain barrier and in structures of the limbic system is of considerable interest in understanding brain's reaction on xenobiotic treatment. This chapter summarizes present models and concepts on brain's reaction after xenobiotics crossing the blood-brain barrier and invading the limbic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf P Meyer
- Medizinische Fakultät der Universität Freiburg, Breisacherstrasse 64, Freiburg, Germany
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Frye CA, Ryan A, Rhodes M. Antiseizure effects of 3alpha-androstanediol and/or 17beta-estradiol may involve actions at estrogen receptor beta. Epilepsy Behav 2009; 16:418-22. [PMID: 19854112 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2009] [Revised: 09/03/2009] [Accepted: 09/06/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone (T), the principal androgen secreted by the testes, can have antiseizure effects. Some of these effects may be mediated by T's metabolites. T is metabolized to 3alpha-androstanediol (3alpha-diol). T, but not 3alpha-diol, binds androgen receptor. We investigated effects of 3alpha-diol (1 mg/kg, SC) and/or an androgen receptor blocker (flutamide 10 mg, SC), 1 hour prior to administration of pentylenetetrazol (85 mg/kg, IP). Juvenile male rats administered 3alpha-diol had less seizure activity than those administered vehicle. Flutamide had no effects. T is aromatized to 17beta-estradiol (E(2)), which, like 3alpha-diol, acts at estrogen receptors (ERs). Selective estrogen receptor modulators that favor ERalpha (propyl pyrazole triol, 17alpha-E(2)) or ERbeta (diarylpropionitrile, coumestrol, 3alpha-diol), or both (17beta-E(2)), were administered (0.1 mg/kg, SC) to juvenile male rats 1 hour before pentylenetetrazol. Estrogens with activity at ERbeta, but not those selective for ERalpha, produced antiseizure effects. Actions at ERbeta may underlie some antiseizure effects of T's metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
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The effect of L-arginine and L-NAME on pentylenetetrazole induced seizures in ovariectomized rats, an in vivo study. Seizure 2009; 18:695-8. [PMID: 19854076 DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2009.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Revised: 09/19/2009] [Accepted: 09/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of ovarian hormones and nitric oxide (NO) on seizure and their interaction have been widely investigated. The present study carried out to evaluate the effect of chronic administration of L-arginine (LA) and L-NAME (LN) on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced epilepsy in ovariectomized (OVX) and naïve female rats. Fourty-eight female rats were randomly divided into six groups (n=8) as follows: (1) sham, (2) ovarectomized (OVX), (3) sham-LA, (4) sham-LN, (5) OVX-LA, and (6) OVX-LN. The animals of sham-LA and OVX-LA received daily injection of 500 mg/kg L-arginine (i.p.) during 4 weeks. Sham-LN and OVX-LN were treated by 10 mg/kg L-NAME (i.p.) daily for 4 weeks. The animals of sham and OVX groups received 1 ml/kg saline (i.p.) instead of L-arginine and L-NAME. The latencies to minimal clonic seizures (MCS) and generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) after intraperitoneal injection of penetylenetetrazole (PTZ, 90 mg/kg) was recorded and compared between groups. A significant increase in the GTCS, but not MCS, latency was seen in OVX rats in comparison with sham-operated animals. Pretreatment of animals with L-NAME resulted in a significant increase in the GTCS and MCS latencies in sham group while no significant effects were seen in OVX rats. On the contrary, while pretreatment with L-arginine had no effects on MCS and GTCS latencies in sham group, a significant decrease in GTCS latency was observed in OVX rats. It is concluded that ovarian sex hormones affect seizure thresholds induced by PTZ and NO has a role on seizures susceptibility following PTZ administration. This NO effect might be differing in the presence or absence of ovarian hormones, but further investigations need to be done.
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Killer N, Hock M, Gehlhaus M, Capetian P, Knoth R, Pantazis G, Volk B, Meyer RP. Modulation of androgen and estrogen receptor expression by antiepileptic drugs and steroids in hippocampus of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2009; 50:1875-90. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Meyer RP, Gehlhaus M, Schwab R, Bürck C, Knoth R, Hagemeyer CE. Concordant up-regulation of cytochrome P450 Cyp3a11, testosterone oxidation and androgen receptor expression in mouse brain after xenobiotic treatment. J Neurochem 2009; 109:670-81. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05994.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Frye CA. Hormonal influences on seizures: basic neurobiology. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2009; 83:27-77. [PMID: 18929075 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)00003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
There are sex differences and effects of steroid hormones, such as androgens, estrogens, and progestogens, that influence seizures. Androgens exert early organizational and later activational effects that can amplify sex/gender differences in the expression of some seizure disorders. Female-typical sex steroids, such as estrogen (E2) and progestins, can exert acute activational effects to reduce convulsive seizures and these effects are mediated in part by the actions of steroids in the hippocampus. Some of these anticonvulsive effects of sex steroids are related to their formation of ligands which have agonist-like actions at gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABAA) receptors or antagonist actions at glutamatergic receptors. Differences in stress, developmental phase, reproductive status, endocrine status, and treatments, such as anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs), may alter levels of these ligands and/or the function of target sites, which may mitigate differences in sensitivity to, and/or tolerance of, steroids among some individuals. The evidence implicating sex steroids in differences associated with hormonal, reproductive, developmental, stress, seizure type, and/or therapeutics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl A Frye
- Department of Psychology, The University at Albany-State University of New York, New York 12222, USA
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