1
|
Bonifant CL, Velasquez MP, Gottschalk S. Advances in immunotherapy for pediatric acute myeloid leukemia. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2017; 18:51-63. [PMID: 28945115 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2018.1384463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Achieving better disease control in patients diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has proven challenging. Overall survival has been impacted by addressing treatment related mortality with focused supportive care measures. Despite this improvement, it remains difficult to induce durable leukemia remissions despite aggressive chemotherapeutic regimens. The addition of hematopoietic stem cell transplants (HSCT) has allowed further treatment intensification and provided the benefit of graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect. However, HSCT carries the risk of transplant related morbidities, particularly GVHD, and anti-tumor responsiveness is still suboptimal. Thus, there is a need for alternate therapies. Immunotherapy has the potential to address this need. Areas covered: Expert opinion: The elusiveness of an ideal surface antigen target together with an immunosuppressive leukemic microenvironment add to the already difficult challenge in developing AML-targeted immunotherapies. Though many hurdles remain, recent translational discovery and progressive clinical advances anticipate exciting future developments. AREAS COVERED This review highlights promises and challenges to immune-based therapies for AML. It aims to summarize immunotherapeutic strategies trialed in AML patients to date, inclusive of: antibodies, vaccines, and cellular therapy. It emphasizes those being used in the pediatric population, but also includes adult clinical trials and translational science that may ultimately extend to pediatric patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Challice L Bonifant
- a Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , MI , USA
| | - Mireya Paulina Velasquez
- b Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy , St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , Memphis , TN , USA
| | - Stephen Gottschalk
- b Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy , St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , Memphis , TN , USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Proni G, Tami K, Berova N, Ellestad GA. Circular dichroism analysis of the calicheamicin-DNA interaction revisited. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 144:1-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
3
|
Gbolahan OB, Zeidan AM, Stahl M, Abu Zaid M, Farag S, Paczesny S, Konig H. Immunotherapeutic Concepts to Target Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Focusing on the Role of Monoclonal Antibodies, Hypomethylating Agents and the Leukemic Microenvironment. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E1660. [PMID: 28758974 PMCID: PMC5578050 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 07/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intensive chemotherapeutic protocols and allogeneic stem cell transplantation continue to represent the mainstay of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) treatment. Although this approach leads to remissions in the majority of patients, long-term disease control remains unsatisfactory as mirrored by overall survival rates of approximately 30%. The reason for this poor outcome is, in part, due to various toxicities associated with traditional AML therapy and the limited ability of most patients to tolerate such treatment. More effective and less toxic therapies therefore represent an unmet need in the management of AML, a disease for which therapeutic progress has been traditionally slow when compared to other cancers. Several studies have shown that leukemic blasts elicit immune responses that could be exploited for the development of novel treatment concepts. To this end, early phase studies of immune-based therapies in AML have delivered encouraging results and demonstrated safety and feasibility. In this review, we discuss opportunities for immunotherapeutic interventions to enhance the potential to achieve a cure in AML, thereby focusing on the role of monoclonal antibodies, hypomethylating agents and the leukemic microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olumide Babajide Gbolahan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Amer M Zeidan
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Maximilian Stahl
- Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Mohammad Abu Zaid
- Department of Medicine, Bone Marrow and Stem Cell Transplantation, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Sherif Farag
- Department of Medicine, Bone Marrow and Stem Cell Transplantation, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Sophie Paczesny
- Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Riley Hospital for Children, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | - Heiko Konig
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Woitok M, Klose D, Di Fiore S, Richter W, Stein C, Gresch G, Grieger E, Barth S, Fischer R, Kolberg K, Niesen J. Comparison of a mouse and a novel human scFv-SNAP-auristatin F drug conjugate with potent activity against EGFR-overexpressing human solid tumor cells. Onco Targets Ther 2017; 10:3313-3327. [PMID: 28740407 PMCID: PMC5505605 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s140492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) can deliver toxins to specific targets such as tumor cells. They have shown promise in preclinical/clinical development but feature stoichiometrically undefined chemical linkages, and those based on full-size antibodies achieve only limited tumor penetration. SNAP-tag technology can overcome these challenges by conjugating benzylguanine-modified toxins to single-chain fragment variables (scFvs) with 1:1 stoichiometry while preserving antigen binding. Two (human and mouse) scFv-SNAP fusion proteins recognizing the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were expressed in HEK 293T cells. The purified fusion proteins were conjugated to auristatin F (AURIF). Binding activity was confirmed by flow cytometry/immunohistochemistry, and cytotoxic activity was confirmed by cell viability/apoptosis and cell cycle arrest assays, and a novel microtubule dynamics disassembly assay was performed. Both ADCs bound specifically to their target cells in vitro and ex vivo, indicating that the binding activity of the scFv-SNAP fusions was unaffected by conjugation to AURIF. Cytotoxic assays confirmed that the ADCs induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at nanomolar concentrations and microtubule disassembly. The SNAP-tag technology provides a platform for the development of novel ADCs with defined conjugation sites and stoichiometry. We achieved the stable and efficient linkage of AURIF to human or murine scFvs using the SNAP-tag technology, offering a strategy to improve the development of personalized medicines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mira Woitok
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biotechnology (Biology VII), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Diana Klose
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefano Di Fiore
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Christoph Stein
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Gerrit Gresch
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Elena Grieger
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Barth
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Rainer Fischer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany.,Institute of Molecular Biotechnology (Biology VII), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Katharina Kolberg
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - Judith Niesen
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Shah NN. Antibody Based Therapies in Acute Leukemia. Curr Drug Targets 2017; 18:257-270. [PMID: 27593687 PMCID: PMC8335750 DOI: 10.2174/1389450117666160905091459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite great progress in the curative treatment of acute leukemia, outcomes for those with relapsed and/or chemotherapy-refractory disease remain poor. Current intensive cytotoxic therapies can be associated with significant morbidity and novel therapies are needed to improve outcomes. Immunotherapy based approaches provide an alternative mechanism of action in the treatment of acute leukemia. Due to cell surface antigen expression, leukemia in particular is amenable to targeted therapies, such as antibody-based therapy. Based on the potential for non-overlapping toxicity, the possibility of synergistic action with standard chemotherapy, and by providing a novel method to overcome chemotherapy resistance, antibody-based therapies have shown potential for benefit. Modifications to standard monoclonal antibodies, including drug conjugation and linkage to T-cells, may further enhance efficacy of antibody-based therapies. Identifying the ideal timing for incorporation of antibody-based therapies, within standard regimens, may lead to improvement in overall outcomes. This article will provide an overview of antibody-based therapies in clinical development for the treatment of acute leukemia in children and adults, with a particular focus on the current strategies and future developments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nirali N. Shah
- Pediatric Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research (CCR), National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tumey LN, Leverett CA, Vetelino B, Li F, Rago B, Han X, Loganzo F, Musto S, Bai G, Sukuru SCK, Graziani EI, Puthenveetil S, Casavant J, Ratnayake A, Marquette K, Hudson S, Doppalapudi VR, Stock J, Tchistiakova L, Bessire AJ, Clark T, Lucas J, Hosselet C, O’Donnell CJ, Subramanyam C. Optimization of Tubulysin Antibody-Drug Conjugates: A Case Study in Addressing ADC Metabolism. ACS Med Chem Lett 2016; 7:977-982. [PMID: 27882194 PMCID: PMC5108037 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.6b00195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
As part of our efforts to develop new classes of tubulin inhibitor payloads for antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) programs, we developed a tubulysin ADC that demonstrated excellent in vitro activity but suffered from rapid metabolism of a critical acetate ester. A two-pronged strategy was employed to address this metabolism. First, the hydrolytically labile ester was replaced by a carbamate functional group resulting in a more stable ADC that retained potency in cellular assays. Second, site-specific conjugation was employed in order to design ADCs with reduced metabolic liabilities. Using the later approach, we were able to identify a conjugate at the 334C position of the heavy chain that resulted in an ADC with considerably reduced metabolism and improved efficacy. The examples discussed herein provide one of the clearest demonstrations to-date that site of conjugation can play a critical role in addressing metabolic and PK liabilities of an ADC. Moreover, a clear correlation was identified between the hydrophobicity of an ADC and its susceptibility to metabolic enzymes. Importantly, this study demonstrates that traditional medicinal chemistry strategies can be effectively applied to ADC programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L. Nathan Tumey
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Carolyn A. Leverett
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Beth Vetelino
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Fengping Li
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Brian Rago
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Xiaogang Han
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Frank Loganzo
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Sylvia Musto
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Guoyun Bai
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | | | - Edmund I. Graziani
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Sujiet Puthenveetil
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Jeffrey Casavant
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Anokha Ratnayake
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Kimberly Marquette
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Sarah Hudson
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | | | - Joseph Stock
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | | | - Andrew J. Bessire
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Tracey Clark
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Judy Lucas
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | - Christine Hosselet
- Pfizer, Inc., 445 Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06379, United States
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sissi C, Moro S, Crothers DM. Novel insights on the DNA interaction of calicheamicin γ₁(I). Biopolymers 2016; 103:449-59. [PMID: 25411012 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Calicheamicin γ1(I) (Cal) is a unique molecule in which a DNA binding motif (aryl-tetrasaccharide) is linked to a DNA cleaving moiety (calicheamicinone). The hallmark of this natural product rests in the impressive optimization of these two mechanisms leading to a drug that is extremely efficient in cleaving DNA at well-defined sites. However, the relative contributions of these two structurally distinct domains to the overall process have not been fully elucidated yet. Here, we used different experimental approaches to better dissect the role of the aryl-tetrasaccharide and the enediyne moieties in the DNA sequence selective binding step as well as the in the cleavage reaction. Our results highlight the remarkable cooperation of the two components in producing an amazing molecular machine. The herein presented molecular details of this concerted mechanism of action can be further applied to rationally design more druggable compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sissi
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefano Moro
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 5, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Donald M Crothers
- Chemistry Department, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT, 06511
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mladenov R, Hristodorov D, Cremer C, Hein L, Kreutzer F, Stroisch T, Niesen J, Brehm H, Blume T, Brümmendorf TH, Jost E, Thepen T, Fischer R, Stockmeyer B, Barth S, Stein C. The Fc-alpha receptor is a new target antigen for immunotherapy of myeloid leukemia. Int J Cancer 2015; 137:2729-38. [PMID: 26041304 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 04/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Antibody-based immunotherapy of leukemia requires the targeting of specific antigens on the surface of blasts. The Fc gamma receptor (CD64) has been investigated in detail, and CD64-targeting immunotherapy has shown promising efficacy in the targeted ablation of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), acute myelomonocytic leukemia (AMML) and chronic myeloid leukemia cells (CML). Here we investigate for the first time the potential of FcαRI (CD89) as a new target antigen expressed by different myeloid leukemic cell populations. For specific targeting and killing, we generated a recombinant fusion protein comprising an anti-human CD89 single-chain Fragment variable and the well-characterized truncated version of the potent Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A (ETA'). Our novel therapeutic approach achieved in vitro EC50 values in range 0.2-3 nM depending on the applied stimuli, that is, interferon gamma or tumor necrosis factor alpha. We also observed a dose-dependent apoptosis-mediated cytotoxicity, which resulted in the elimination of up to 90% of the target cells within 72 hr. These findings were also confirmed ex vivo using leukemic primary cells from peripheral blood samples of three previously untreated patients. We conclude that CD89-specific targeting of leukemia cell lines can be achieved in vitro and that the efficient elimination of leukemic primary cells supports the potential of CD89-ETA' as a potent, novel immunotherapeutic agent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radoslav Mladenov
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Dmitrij Hristodorov
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Christian Cremer
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Lea Hein
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kreutzer
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tim Stroisch
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Judith Niesen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hannes Brehm
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tobias Blume
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tim Henrik Brümmendorf
- Department of Hematology and Oncology (Internal Medicine IV), RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Edgar Jost
- Department of Hematology and Oncology (Internal Medicine IV), RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Theophilus Thepen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Rainer Fischer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| | - Bernhard Stockmeyer
- Department of Internal Medicine 5 Hematology/Oncology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefan Barth
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Christoph Stein
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Immunotherapy, Institute for Applied Medical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University Clinic, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Product Development, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tsodikov OV, Hou C, Walsh CT, Garneau-Tsodikova S. Crystal structure of O-methyltransferase CalO6 from the calicheamicin biosynthetic pathway: a case of challenging structure determination at low resolution. BMC STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2015; 15:13. [PMID: 26170207 PMCID: PMC4501126 DOI: 10.1186/s12900-015-0040-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background Calicheamicins (CAL) are enedyine natural products with potent antibiotic and cytotoxic activity, used in anticancer therapy. The O-methyltransferase CalO6 is proposed to catalyze methylation of the hydroxyl moiety at the C2 position of the orsellinic acid group of CAL. Results Crystals of CalO6 diffracted non-isotropically, with the usable data extending to 3.4 Å. While no single method of crystal structure determination yielded a structure of CalO6, we were able to determine its structure by using molecular replacement-guided single wavelength anomalous dispersion by using diffraction data from native crystals of CalO6 and a highly non-isomorphous mercury derivative. The structure of CalO6 reveals the methyltransferase fold and dimeric organization characteristic of small molecule O-methyltransferases involved in secondary metabolism in bacteria and plants. Uncommonly, CalO6 was crystallized in the absence of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM; the methyl donor) or S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH; its product). Conclusions Likely as a consequence of the dynamic nature of CalO6 in the absence of its cofactor, the central region of CalO6, which forms a helical lid-like structure near the active site in CalO6 and similar enzymes, is not observed in the electron density. We propose that this region controls the entry of SAM into and the exit of SAH from the active site of CalO6 and shapes the active site for substrate binding and catalysis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12900-015-0040-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oleg V Tsodikov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, 40536-0596, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Caixia Hou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, 40536-0596, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Christopher T Walsh
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, 02215, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Sylvie Garneau-Tsodikova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, 40536-0596, Lexington, KY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Major ADC Companies, Current Clinical Trials, Recent Patents Issued and Patent Applications, and Cost Analysis of Drug Therapy. ANTIBODY-DRUG CONJUGATES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-13081-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|