Spider venom peptides as potential drug candidates due to their anticancer and antinociceptive activities

Opportunities and challenges of RiPP-based therapeutics

Covering: up to 2024Ribosomally synthesised and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) comprise a substantial group of peptide natural products exhibiting noteworthy bioactivities ranging from antiinfective to anticancer and analgesic effects. Furthermore, RiPP biosynthetic pathways represent promising production routes for complex peptide drugs, and the RiPP technology is well-suited for peptide engineering to produce derivatives with specific functions. Thus, RiPP natural products possess features that render them potentially ideal candidates for drug discovery and development. Nonetheless, only a small number of RiPP-derived compounds have successfully reached the market thus far. This review initially outlines the therapeutic opportunities that RiPP-based compounds can offer, whilst subsequently discussing the limitations that require resolution in order to fully exploit the potential of RiPPs towards the development of innovative drugs.

In silico bioprospecting of receptors associated with the mechanism of action of Rondonin, an antifungal peptide from spider Acanthoscurria rondoniae haemolymph

Multiple drug-resistant fungal species are associated with the development of diseases. Thus, more efficient drugs for the treatment of these aetiological agents are needed. Rondonin is a peptide isolated from the haemolymph of the spider Acanthoscurria rondoniae. Previous studies have shown that this peptide has antifungal activity against Candida sp. and Trichosporon sp. strains, acting on their genetic material. However, the molecular targets involved in its biological activity have not yet been described. Bioinformatics tools were used to determine the possible targets involved in the biological activity of Rondonin. The PharmMapper server was used to search for microorganismal targets of Rondonin. The PatchDock server was used to perform the molecular docking. UCSF Chimera software was used to evaluate these intermolecular interactions. In addition, the I-TASSER server was used to predict the target ligand sites. Then, these predictions were contrasted with the sites previously described in the literature. Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted for two promising complexes identified from the docking analysis. Rondonin demonstrated consistency with the ligand sites of the following targets: outer membrane proteins F (id: 1MPF) and A (id: 1QJP), which are responsible for facilitating the passage of small molecules through the plasma membrane; the subunit of the flavoprotein fumarate reductase (id: 1D4E), which is involved in the metabolism of nitrogenous bases; and the ATP-dependent Holliday DNA helicase junction (id: 1IN4), which is associated with histone proteins that package genetic material. Additionally, the molecular dynamics results indicated the stability of the interaction of Rondonin with 1MPF and 1IN4 during a 10 ns simulation. These interactions corroborate with previous in vitro studies on Rondonin, which acts on fungal genetic material without causing plasma membrane rupture. Therefore, the bioprospecting methods used in this research were considered satisfactory since they were consistent with previous results obtained via in vitro experimentation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40203-024-00224-1.

Analgesic Peptides: From Natural Diversity to Rational Design

Pain affects one-third of the global population and is a significant public health issue. The use of opioid drugs, which are the strongest painkillers, is associated with several side effects, such as tolerance, addiction, overdose, and even death. An increasing demand for novel, safer analgesic agents is a driving force for exploring natural sources of bioactive peptides with antinociceptive activity. Since the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play a crucial role in pain modulation, the discovery of new peptide ligands for GPCRs is a significant challenge for novel drug development. The aim of this review is to present peptides of human and animal origin with antinociceptive potential and to show the possibilities of their modification, as well as the design of novel structures. The study presents the current knowledge on structure-activity relationship in the design of peptide-based biomimetic compounds, the modification strategies directed at increasing the antinociceptive activity, and improvement of metabolic stability and pharmacodynamic profile. The procedures employed in prolonged drug delivery of emerging compounds are also discussed. The work summarizes the conditions leading to the development of potential morphine replacements.

Evaluation of Habenaria aitchisonii Reichb. for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects with in vivo and in silico approaches

Habenaria aitchisonii Reichb was analyzed in this research, including its chemical composition and its in vitro antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, acute oral toxicity, and antinociceptive activity. The chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions were found to be the most powerful based on in vitro antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic assays. The acute oral toxicity of the crude methanolic extract was determined before in vivo studies. The acetic acid and formalin tests were used to measure the antinociceptive effect, and the potential mechanisms involved in antinociception were explored. The carrageenan-induced paw edema test was used to examine the immediate anti-inflammatory effect, and many phlogistic agents were used to determine the specific mechanism. Furthermore, for ex vivo activities, the mice were sacrificed, the forebrain was isolated, and the antioxidant levels of glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and catalase (CAT) were estimated using a UV spectrophotometer. No toxicity was seen at oral dosages up to 3,000 mg/kg. The antinociceptive impact was much higher than the standard drug. Both the inflammatory and neurogenic phases of the formalin experiment revealed an analgesic effect in the chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions. In carrageenan anti-inflammatory assays, the chloroform fraction (Ha.Chf) was the most potent fraction. We further studied the GC-MS of crude plant extract and found a total of 18 compounds. In the anti-inflammatory mechanism, it was observed that the Ha.Chf inhibits the COX-2 as well as 5-LOX pathways. The results exhibited that this species is a good source of phytocomponents like germacrone, which can be employed as a sustainable and natural therapeutic agent, supporting its traditional use in folk medicine for inflammatory conditions and pain.

Anticancer Effect of Theranekron® on Androgen-Dependent Prostate Cancer Cells

Objectives

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a significant health problem in men worldwide. Although there are numerous treatment choices for PCa, acquired resistance limits treatment success. Therefore, there is a need for new approaches as powerful resources for use in alternative or supportive therapeutic strategies for anticancer therapeutics. Theranekron® is a commercially available alcoholic extract of Tarantula cubensis. Recent studies have shown the potent anticancer effect of theranekron in human tumors, including PCa. Herein, we comparatively examined the antiproliferative activity of theranekron and its biochemical action on androgenic signaling and cell cycle-related cyclin proteins in androgen-dependent PCa cells, LNCaP, VCaP, and 22Rv1.

Materials and Methods

Human androgen-dependent PCa cells, LNCaP (CRL-1740TM), 22Rv1 (CRL-2505TM), and VCaP (CRL-2876TM) were used to evaluate the effect of theranekron in vitro. The impact of theranekron on cell viability was evaluated using a WST-1-based viability test. Its impact on AR, cyclin A2, cyclin B1, and cyclin E1 was examined by immunoblotting. To test the anti-malignant effect of theranekron on 3D tumor formation of PCa cells, soft agar assay was used.

Results

Our results indicated that theranekron treatment significantly reduced the viability of PCa cells. It remarkably decreased the protein levels of AR, cyclin A2, cyclin B1, and cyclin E1 in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, Theranekron administration strongly limited the 3D tumor formation of LNCaP, 22Rv1, and VCaP cells.

Conclusion

Our findings strongly suggest that theranekron may offer potent therapeutic efficacy against androgen-dependent PCa cells. Moreover, it may be a potent component for preventing acquired resistance to chemotherapeutics.

Intersexual Differences in the Gene Expression of Phoneutria depilata (Araneae, Ctenidae) Toxins Revealed by Venom Gland Transcriptome Analyses

The wandering spider, Phoneutria depilata, is one of Colombia's most active nocturnal arthropod predators of vertebrates and invertebrates. Its venom has been a relevant subject of study in the last two decades. However, the scarcity of transcriptomic data for the species limits our knowledge of the distinct components present in its venom for linking the mainly neurotoxic effects of the spider venom to a particular molecular target. The transcriptome of the P. depilata venom gland was analyzed to understand the effect of different diets or sex and the impact of these variables on the composition of the venom. We sequenced venom glands obtained from ten males and ten females from three diet treatments: (i) invertebrate: Tenebrio molitor, (ii) vertebrate: Hemidactylus frenatus, and (iii) mixed (T. molitor + H. frenatus). Of 17,354 assembled transcripts from all samples, 65 transcripts relating to venom production differed between males and females. Among them, 36 were classified as neurotoxins, 14 as serine endopeptidases, 11 as other proteins related to venom production, three as metalloprotease toxins, and one as a venom potentiator. There were no differences in transcripts across the analyzed diets, but when considering the effect of diets on differences between the sexes, 59 transcripts were differentially expressed. Our findings provide essential information on toxins differentially expressed that can be related to sex and the plasticity of the diet of P. depilata and thus can be used as a reference for venomics of other wandering spider species.

Therapeutic applications of snake venoms: An invaluable potential of new drug candidates

Animal venoms and their chemical compounds have aroused both empirical and scientific attention for ages. However, there has been a significant increase in scientific investigations in recent decades, allowing the production of various formulations that are helping in the development of many important tools for biotechnological, diagnostic, or therapeutic use, both in human and animal health, as well as in plants. Venoms are composed of biomolecules and inorganic compounds that may have physiological and pharmacological activities that are not related to their principal actions (prey immobilization, digestion, and defense). Snake venom toxins, mainly enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins, and peptides have been identified as potential prototypes for new drugs and/or models for the development of pharmacologically active structural domains for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, pain, and infectious-parasitic diseases. This minireview aims to provide an overview of the biotechnological potential of animal venoms, with a focus on snakes, and to introduce the reader to the fascinating world of Applied Toxinology, where animal biodiversity can be used to develop therapeutic and diagnostic applications for humans.

Efficient synthesis and anticancer evaluation of spider toxin peptide LVTX-8-based analogues with enhanced stability

Cytotoxic peptides derived from spider venoms have been considered as promising candidates for anticancer treatment. The novel cell penetrating peptide LVTX-8, which is a 25-residue amphipathic α-helical peptide isolated from spider Lycosa vittata, exhibited potent cytotoxicity and is a potential precursor for further anticancer drug development. Nevertheless, LVTX-8 may be easily degraded by multiple proteases, inducing the proteolytic stability problem and short half-life. In this study, ten LVTX-8-based analogs were rationally designed and the efficient manual synthetic method was established by the DIC/Oxyma based condensation system. The cytotoxicity of synthetic peptides was systematically evaluated against seven cancer cell lines. Seven of the derived peptides exhibited high cytotoxicity towards tested cancer in vitro, which was better than or comparable to that of natural LVTX-8. In particular, both N-acetyl and C-hydrazide modified LVTX-8 (825) and the conjugate methotrexate (MTX)-GFLG-LVTX-8 (827) possessed more durable anticancer efficiency, higher proteolytic stability, as well as lower hemolysis. Finally, we confirmed that LVTX-8 could disrupt the integrity of cell membrane, target the mitochondria and reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential to induce the cell death. Taken together, the structural modifications were conducted on LVTX-8 for the first time and the stability significantly improved derivatives 825 and 827 may provide useful references for the modifications of cytotoxic peptides.

Network-Based Data Analysis Reveals Ion Channel-Related Gene Features in COVID-19: A Bioinformatic Approach

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) seriously threatens human health and has been disseminated worldwide. Although there are several treatments for COVID-19, its control is currently suboptimal. Therefore, the development of novel strategies to treat COVID-19 is necessary. Ion channels are located on the membranes of all excitable cells and many intracellular organelles and are key components involved in various biological processes. They are a target of interest when searching for drug targets. This study aimed to reveal the relevant molecular features of ion channel genes in COVID-19 based on bioinformatic analyses. The RNA-sequencing data of patients with COVID-19 and healthy subjects (GSE152418 and GSE171110 datasets) were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Ion channel genes were selected from the Hugo Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) database. The RStudio software was used to process the data based on the corresponding R language package to identify ion channel-associated differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Based on the DEGs, Gene Ontology (GO) functional and pathway enrichment analyses were performed using the Enrichr web tool. The STRING database was used to generate a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and the Cytoscape software was used to screen for hub genes in the PPI network based on the cytoHubba plug-in. Transcription factors (TF)-DEG, DEG-microRNA (miRNA) and DEG-disease association networks were constructed using the NetworkAnalyst web tool. Finally, the screened hub genes as drug targets were subjected to enrichment analysis based on the DSigDB using the Enrichr web tool to identify potential therapeutic agents for COVID-19. A total of 29 ion channel-associated DEGs were identified. GO functional analysis showed that the DEGs were integral components of the plasma membrane and were mainly involved in inorganic cation transmembrane transport and ion channel activity functions. Pathway analysis showed that the DEGs were mainly involved in nicotine addiction, calcium regulation in the cardiac cell and neuronal system pathways. The top 10 hub genes screened based on the PPI network included KCNA2, KCNJ4, CACNA1A, CACNA1E, NALCN, KCNA5, CACNA2D1, TRPC1, TRPM3 and KCNN3. The TF-DEG and DEG-miRNA networks revealed significant TFs (FOXC1, GATA2, HINFP, USF2, JUN and NFKB1) and miRNAs (hsa-mir-146a-5p, hsa-mir-27a-3p, hsa-mir-335-5p, hsa-let-7b-5p and hsa-mir-129-2-3p). Gene-disease association network analysis revealed that the DEGs were closely associated with intellectual disability and cerebellar ataxia. Drug-target enrichment analysis showed that the relevant drugs targeting the hub genes CACNA2D1, CACNA1A, CACNA1E, KCNA2 and KCNA5 were gabapentin, gabapentin enacarbil, pregabalin, guanidine hydrochloride and 4-aminopyridine. The results of this study provide a valuable basis for exploring the mechanisms of ion channel genes in COVID-19 and clues for developing therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

Improving the Annotation of the Venom Gland Transcriptome of Pamphobeteus verdolaga, Prospecting Novel Bioactive Peptides

Spider venoms constitute a trove of novel peptides with biotechnological interest. Paucity of next-generation-sequencing (NGS) data generation has led to a description of less than 1% of these peptides. Increasing evidence supports the underestimation of the assembled genes a single transcriptome assembler can predict. Here, the transcriptome of the venom gland of the spider Pamphobeteus verdolaga was re-assembled, using three free access algorithms, Trinity, SOAPdenovo-Trans, and SPAdes, to obtain a more complete annotation. Assembler’s performance was evaluated by contig number, N50, read representation on the assembly, and BUSCO’s terms retrieval against the arthropod dataset. Out of all the assembled sequences with all software, 39.26% were common between the three assemblers, and 27.88% were uniquely assembled by Trinity, while 27.65% were uniquely assembled by SPAdes. The non-redundant merging of all three assemblies’ output permitted the annotation of 9232 sequences, which was 23% more when compared to each software and 28% more when compared to the previous P. verdolaga annotation; moreover, the description of 65 novel theraphotoxins was possible. In the generation of data for non-model organisms, as well as in the search for novel peptides with biotechnological interest, it is highly recommended to employ at least two different transcriptome assemblers.

Toxin diversity revealed by de novo transcriptome assembly for venom gland in two species of spiders (Trichonephila clavata and Sinopoda pengi)

During long-term predator-prey coevolution, spiders have generated a vast diversity of toxins. Trichonephila clavata is a web-spinning spider whose large, well-constructed webs and venomous arsenal facilitate prey capture. In contrast, Sinopoda pengi is an ambush predator with agile locomotion and strong chelicerae for hunting. In this study, transcriptomic analysis was performed to describe the predicted toxins of S. pengi and T. clavata. A total of 43 and 47 of these unigenes from S. pengi and T. clavata, respectively, were predicted to have toxin activity. Putative neurotoxins were classified to the family level according to cysteine arrangement; 4 and 6 toxin families were produced by S. pengi and T. clavata, respectively. In addition, potential metalloproteases, acetylcholinesterases, serine proteases, hyaluronidases and phospholipases were found by annotation in databases. In summary, molecular templates with potential application value for medical and biological fields were obtained by classifying and characterizing presumed venom components, which established a foundation for further study of venom.

Venom Peptide Toxins Targeting the Outer Pore Region of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 in Pain: Implications for Analgesic Drug Development

The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel plays an important role in the peripheral nociceptive pathway. TRPV1 is a polymodal receptor that can be activated by multiple types of ligands and painful stimuli, such as noxious heat and protons, and contributes to various acute and chronic pain conditions. Therefore, TRPV1 is emerging as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of various pain conditions. Notably, various peptides isolated from venomous animals potently and selectively control the activation and inhibition of TRPV1 by binding to its outer pore region. This review will focus on the mechanisms by which venom-derived peptides interact with this portion of TRPV1 to control receptor functions and how these mechanisms can drive the development of new types of analgesics.

Isolated Components From Spider Venom Targeting Human Glioblastoma Cells and Its Potential Combined Therapy With Rapamycin

Glioblastomas (GBs) are responsible for a higher mortality rate among gliomas, corresponding to more than 50% of them and representing a challenge in terms of therapy and prognosis. Peptide-based antineoplastic therapy is a vast and promising field, and these molecules are one of the main classes present in spider venoms. Recently, our research group demonstrated the cytotoxic effects of Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom (PnV) in GBs. The present study aimed to select the purified PnV-components with potential antineoplastic effects, as well as to compare different metabolic conditions. Human GB (NG97) cells were treated with the PnV fractions: F1 (less than 3 kDa), F2 (between 3 and 10 kDa), and F3 (greater than 10 kDa). After treatments, viability (MTT), proliferation (CFSE), death (Annexin V/propidium iodide-PI), and cell cycle (PI) assays were performed. The F1 and F2 fractions in acute periods (1 and 5 h) and low concentrations (0.1 and 1 μg/ml) showed more relevant effects and were repurified in subfractions (SF1–SF11); from these, SF3 and SF4 showed the most significant effects. The previous inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin had a synergistic effect with SFs, reducing cell viability even more significantly than the untreated control. Taken together, the results point to components present in SF3 and SF4 as potential prototypes for the development of new drugs for GB treatment and stimulate studies to use these compounds in combination therapy with a rapamycin-like activity. Future studies will be conducted to characterize, synthesize the molecules, and to evaluate the efficacy and safety in preclinical models.

Selective Targeting of Nav1.7 with Engineered Spider Venom-Based Peptides

A fundamental mechanism that drives the propagation of electrical signals in the nervous system is the activation of voltage-gated sodium channels. The sodium channel subtype Nav1.7 is critical for the transmission of pain-related signaling, with gain-of-function mutations in Nav1.7 resulting in various painful pathologies. Loss-of-function mutations cause complete insensitivity to pain and anosmia in humans that otherwise have normal nervous system function, rendering Nav1.7 an attractive target for the treatment of pain. Despite this, no Nav1.7 selective therapeutic has been approved for use as an analgesic to date. Here we present a summary of research that has focused on engineering peptides found in spider venoms to produce Nav1.7 selective antagonists. We discuss the progress that has been made on various scaffolds from different venom families and highlight the challenges that remain in the effort to produce a Nav1.7 selective, venom-based analgesic.

Purification and characterization of peptides Ap2, Ap3 and Ap5 (ω-toxins) from the venom of the Brazilian tarantula Acanthoscurria paulensis

Peptides isolated from spider venoms are of pharmacological interest due to their neurotoxic activity, acting on voltage-dependent ion channels present in different types of human body tissues. Three peptide toxins titled as Ap2, Ap3 and Ap5 were purified by RP-HPLC from Acanthoscurria paulensis venom. They were partially sequenced by MALDI In-source Decay method and their sequences were completed and confirmed by transcriptome analysis of the venom gland. The Ap2, Ap3 and Ap5 peptides have, respectively, 42, 41 and 46 amino acid residues, and experimental molecular masses of 4886.3, 4883.7 and 5454.7 Da, with the Ap2 peptide presenting an amidated C-terminus. Amongst the assayed channels - NaV1.1, NaV1.5, NaV1.7, CaV1.2, CaV2.1 and CaV2.2 - Ap2, Ap3 and Ap5 inhibited 20-30 % of CaV2.1 current at 1 μM concentration. Ap3 also inhibited sodium current in NaV1.1, Nav1.5 and Nav1.7 channels by 6.6 ± 1.91 % (p = 0.0276), 4.2 ± 1.09 % (p = 0.0185) and 16.05 ± 2.75 % (p = 0.0282), respectively. Considering that Ap2, Ap3 and Ap5 belong to the 'U'-unknown family of spider toxins, which has few descriptions of biological activity, the present work contributes to the knowledge of these peptides and demonstrates this potential as channel modulators.

Characterization of 2 linear peptides without disulfide bridges from the venom of the spider Lycosa poonaensis (Lycosidae)

Spider venom is a complex mixture of bioactive components, in which peptides play an important role by showing neurotoxicity or cytotoxicity. Disulfide-rich peptides are major components in the venom, but linear peptides without disulfide bridges are also present and often show antimicrobial activity. In this study, we analyzed the venom of the spider Lycosa poonaensis (Lycosidae) to find novel antimicrobial peptides using mass spectrometry. The result revealed that 120 out of 401 detected components were nondisulfide-bridged peptides. From them, the sequence of 2 peptides (lyp2370 and lyp1987) were determined by MS/MS analysis. The biological activity test revealed that lyp2370 has only weak antibacterial activity. On the other hand, lyp1987, which is identical to M-lycotoxin-Ls3b from the Lycosa singoriensi venom, showed significant antibacterial activity. The weak activity of lyp2370 was found to be due to the presence of a Glu residue on the hydrophilic face of its amphipathic α-helical structure.

New Insectotoxin from Tibellus Oblongus Spider Venom Presents Novel Adaptation of ICK Fold

The Tibellus oblongus spider is an active predator that does not spin webs and remains poorly investigated in terms of venom composition. Here, we present a new toxin, named Tbo-IT2, predicted by cDNA analysis of venom glands transcriptome. The presence of Tbo-IT2 in the venom was confirmed by proteomic analyses using the LC-MS and MS/MS techniques. The distinctive features of Tbo-IT2 are the low similarity of primary structure with known animal toxins and the unusual motif of 10 cysteine residues distribution. Recombinant Tbo-IT2 (rTbo-IT2), produced in E. coli using the thioredoxin fusion protein strategy, was structurally and functionally studied. rTbo-IT2 showed insecticidal activity on larvae of the housefly Musca domestica (LD₁₀₀ 200 μg/g) and no activity on the panel of expressed neuronal receptors and ion channels. The spatial structure of the peptide was determined in a water solution by NMR spectroscopy. The Tbo-IT2 structure is a new example of evolutionary adaptation of a well-known inhibitor cystine knot (ICK) fold to 5 disulfide bonds configuration, which determines additional conformational stability and gives opportunities for insectotoxicity and probably some other interesting features.

A new survival model based on ion channel genes for prognostic prediction in hepatocellular carcinoma

Accumulating studies revealed the vital role of ion channels in cancers, but the prognosis role of ion channels in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains limited. Here, we developed and validated an ion channel signature for prognostic prediction of HCC patients. In total, 35 differential expressed ion channel genes (DEChannelGs) were identified in HCC and a novel ion channel risk model was established for HCC prognosis prediction using the TCGA cohort, which was validated using the ICGC cohort. Moreover, this risk model was an independent prognostic factor and was associated with the immune microenvironment in HCC. Finally, the mRNA and protein levels of ANO10 and CLCN2 were prominently up-regulated and were related to the poor prognosis of HCC patients. Taken together, these results indicated a novel ion channel risk model as a prognostic biomarker for HCC patients and provided further insight into its immunoregulatory mechanism in HCC progression.

New opportunities and challenges of venom-based and bacteria-derived molecules for anticancer targeted therapy

Due to advances in detection and treatment of cancer, especially the rise in the targeted therapy, the five-year relative survival rate of all cancers has increased significantly. However, according to the analysis of the survival rate of cancer patients in 2019, the survival rate of most cancers is still less than five years. Therefore, to combat complex cancer and further improve the 5-year survival rate of cancer patients, it is necessary to develop some new anticancer drugs. Because of the adaptive evolution of toxic species for millions of years, the venom sac is a "treasure bank", which has millions of biomolecules with high affinity and stability awaiting further development. Complete utilization of venom-based and bacteria-derived drugs in the market is still staggering because of incomplete understanding regarding their mode of action. In this review, we focused on the currently identified targets for anticancer effects based on venomous and bacterial biomolecules, such as ion channels, membrane non-receptor molecules, integrins, and other related target molecules. This review will serve as the key for exploring the molecular mechanisms behind the anticancer potential of venom-based and bacteria-derived drugs and will also lay the path for the development of anticancer targeted therapy.

Novel Therapeutic Approaches of Ion Channels and Transporters in Cancer

The expression and function of many ion channels and transporters in cancer cells display major differences in comparison to those from healthy cells. These differences provide the cancer cells with advantages for tumor development. Accordingly, targeting ion channels and transporters have beneficial anticancer effects including inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, metastasis, tumor vascularization, and chemotherapy resistance, as well as promoting apoptosis. Some of the molecular mechanisms associating ion channels and transporters with cancer include the participation of oxidative stress, immune response, metabolic pathways, drug synergism, as well as noncanonical functions of ion channels. This diversity of mechanisms offers an exciting possibility to suggest novel and more effective therapeutic approaches to fight cancer. Here, we review and discuss most of the current knowledge suggesting novel therapeutic approaches for cancer therapy targeting ion channels and transporters. The role and regulation of ion channels and transporters in cancer provide a plethora of exceptional opportunities in drug design, as well as novel and promising therapeutic approaches that may be used for the benefit of cancer patients.

An Economic Dilemma Between Molecular Weapon Systems May Explain an Arachno-atypical Venom in Wasp Spiders (Argiope bruennichi)

Spiders use venom to subdue their prey, but little is known about the diversity of venoms in different spider families. Given the limited data available for orb-weaver spiders (Araneidae), we selected the wasp spider Argiope bruennichi for detailed analysis. Our strategy combined a transcriptomics pipeline based on multiple assemblies with a dual proteomics workflow involving parallel mass spectrometry techniques and electrophoretic profiling. We found that the remarkably simple venom of A. bruennichi has an atypical composition compared to other spider venoms, prominently featuring members of the cysteine-rich secretory protein, antigen 5 and pathogenesis-related protein 1 (CAP) superfamily and other, mostly high-molecular-weight proteins. We also detected a subset of potentially novel toxins similar to neuropeptides. We discuss the potential function of these proteins in the context of the unique hunting behavior of wasp spiders, which rely mostly on silk to trap their prey. We propose that the simplicity of the venom evolved to solve an economic dilemma between two competing yet metabolically expensive weapon systems. This study emphasizes the importance of cutting-edge methods to encompass the lineages of smaller venomous species that have yet to be characterized in detail, allowing us to understand the biology of their venom systems and to mine this prolific resource for translational research.

Strategies for recombinant production of antimicrobial peptides with pharmacological potential

INTRODUCTION

The need to develop new drugs for the control of pathogenic microorganisms has redoubled efforts to prospect for antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from natural sources and to characterize its structure and function. These molecules present a broad spectrum of action against different microorganisms and frequently present promiscuous action, with anticancer and immunomodulatory activities. Furthermore, AMPs can be used as biopharmaceuticals in the treatment of hospital-acquired infections and other serious diseases with relevant social and economic impacts.Areas covered: The low yield and the therefore difficult extraction and purification process in AMPs are problems that limit their industrial application and scientific research. Thus, optimized heterologous expression systems were developed to significantly boost AMP yields, allow high efficiency in purification and structural optimization for the increase of therapeutic activity.Expert opinion: This review provides an update on recent developments in the recombinant production of ribosomal and non-ribosomal synthesis of AMPs and on strategies to increase the expression of genes encoding AMPs at the transcriptional and translational levels and regulation of the post-translational modifications. Moreover, there are detailed reports of AMPs that have already reached marketable status or are in the pipeline under advanced stages of preclinical testing.

An Anti-Cancer Peptide LVTX-8 Inhibits the Proliferation and Migration of Lung Tumor Cells by Regulating Causal Genes' Expression in p53-Related Pathways

Spider venom has been found to show its anticancer activity in a variety of human malignancies, including lung cancer. In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer peptide toxin LVTX-8, with linear amphipathic alpha-helical conformation, designed and synthesized from the cDNA library of spider Lycosa vittata. Multiple cellular methods, such as CCK-8 assay, flow cytometry, colony formation assay, Transwell invasion and migration assay, were performed to detect peptide-induced cell growth inhibition and anti-metastasis in lung cancer cells. Our results demonstrated that LVTX-8 displayed strong cytotoxicity and anti-metastasis towards lung cancer in vitro. Furthermore, LVTX-8 could suppress the growth and metastasis of lung cancer cells (A549 and H460) in nude mouse models. Transcriptomics, integrated with multiple bioinformatics analysis, suggested that the molecular basis of the LVTX-8-mediated inhibition of cancer cell growth and metastasis manifested in two aspects: Firstly, it could restrain the activity of cancer cell division and migration through the functional pathways, including "p53 hypoxia pathway" and "integrin signaling". Secondly, it could regulate the expression level of apoptotic-related proteins, which may account for programmed apoptosis of cancer cells. Taken together, as an anticancer peptide with high efficiency and acceptable specificity, LVTX-8 may become a potential precursor of a therapeutic agent for lung cancer in the future.