Attention impairment associated with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients with mild incapacity

Behavioral disorders in multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a heterogenous autoimmune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by inflammation, demyelination and chronic progressive neurodegeneration. Among its broad and unpredictable range of neuropsychiatric symptoms, behavioral changes are common, even from the early stages of the disease, while they are associated with cognitive deficits in advanced MS. According to DSM-5, behavioral disorders include attention deficits, oppositional, defiant and conduct disorders, anxiety, panic, obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD), disruptive and emotional disorders, while others include also irritability, agitation, aggression and executive dysfunctions. Approximately 30 to 80% of individuals with MS demonstrate behavioral changes associated with disease progression. They are often combined with depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders, but usually not correlated with motor deficits, suggesting different pathomechanisms. These and other alterations contribute to disability in MS. While no specific neuropathological data for behavioral changes in MS are available, those in demyelination animal models share similarities with white matter and neuroinflammatory abnormalities in humans. Neuroimaging revealed prefrontal cortical atrophy, interhemispheric inhibition and disruption of fronto-striato-thalamic and frontoparietal networks. This indicates multi-regional patterns of cerebral disturbances within the MS pathology although their pathogenic mechanisms await further elucidation. Benefits of social, psychological, behavioral interventions and exercise were reported. Based on systematical analysis of PubMed, Google Scholar and Cochrane library, current epidemiological, clinical, neuroimaging and pathogenetic evidence are reviewed that may aid early identification of behavioral symptoms in MS, and promote new therapeutic targets and strategies.

Comparing online and face-to-face administration of a neuropsychological computerized attention test: Assessment modality does not influence performance

Background

The cognitive impairment associated with the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for teleneuropsychology (1). Moreover, neurologic diseases associated with mental deterioration usually require the use of the same neuropsychological instrument to assess cognitive changes across time. Therefore, in such cases, a learning effect upon retesting is not desired. Attention and its subdomains can be measured using Go/no-go tests, such as, the Continuous Visual Attention Test (CVAT). Here, we administered the CVAT to investigate the effect of modality (online vs. face-to-face) on attentional performance. The variables of the CVAT measures four attention domains: focused-attention, behavioral-inhibition, intrinsic-alertness (reaction time, RT), and sustained-attention (intra-individual variability of RTs, VRT).

Methods

The CVAT was applied face-to face and online in 130 adult Americans and 50 adult Brazilians. Three different study designs were used: (1) Between-subjects design: healthy Americans were tested face-to-face (n = 88) or online (n = 42). We verified if there were any differences between the two modalities. (2) Within-subjects design: Brazilians participants (n = 50) were tested twice (online and face-to-face). For each CVAT variable, repeated measures ANCOVAs were performed to verify whether modality or first vs. second tests differ. Agreement was analyzed using Kappa, intraclass correlation coefficients, and Bland-Altman plots. (3) Paired comparisons: we compared Americans vs. Brazilians, pairing subjects by age, sex, and level of education, grouping by modality.

Results

Assessment modality did not influence performance using two independent samples (between-subjects design) or the same individual tested twice (within-subjects design). The second test and the first test did not differ. Data indicated significant agreements for the VRT variable. Based on paired samples, Americans did not differ from Brazilians and a significant agreement was found for the VRT variable.

Conclusion

The CVAT can be administered online or face-to-face without learning upon retesting. The data on agreement (online vs. face-to-face, test vs. retest, Americans vs. Brazilians) indicate that VRT is the most reliable variable.

Limitations

High educational level of the participants and absence of a perfect balanced within-subjects design.

Cognitive assessment of Brazilian patients with multiple sclerosis: weighing the impact of disability and depressive symptoms

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Cognition is not routinely assessed in patients with MS though they frequently have cognitive complaints or dysfunction.

Objective

The aim of this study was to compare the cognitive status of patients with MS with age, sex, and schooling matched controls and to evaluate the potential influence of clinical parameters on cognition.

Methods

A total of 35 patients with MS (mean±SD age 37.9 years±11.44, M/F: 12/23) and 33 healthy controls (mean±SD age 38.8 years±12.6, M/F: 12/21) were enrolled in this study. All subjects underwent a structured clinical assessment and the cognitive tools are as follows: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT), Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), Digit Span, and Verbal Fluency Tests (letters F, A, and S and animal category). Psychopathology was assessed with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) was used for patients.

Results

Patients performed worse than controls in almost all tests, with approximately 70% of patients presenting cognitive impairment. The most affected cognitive domain was episodic memory (45.7%), followed by verbal fluency (42.8%) and information processing speed (22.8%). SDMT was inversely correlated with disease severity, as assessed by the EDSS. Depression did not influence cognitive performance in this cohort.

Conclusions

Cognitive dysfunction is common among patients with MS. While motor impairment was associated with information processing speed, depression did not influence cognitive performance.

Integrated Cognitive Rehabilitation Home-Based Protocol to Improve Cognitive Functions in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Randomized Controlled Study

Cognitive impairment (CI) occurs in about 40-65% of people with multiple sclerosis (MS) during the disease course. Cognitive rehabilitation has produced non-univocal results in MS patients.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to evaluate whether an Integrated Cognitive Rehabilitation Program (ICRP) in MS patients might significantly improve CI.

METHODS

Forty patients with three phenotypes of MS were randomly assigned into two groups: the experimental group (EG, n = 20), which participated in the ICRP for 10 weeks of training; and the control group (CG, n = 20). All participants' cognitive functions were assessed at three timepoints (baseline, post-treatment, and 3-month follow-up) with the California Verbal Learning (CVLT), Brief Visuospatial Memory (BVMTR), Numerical Stroop, and Wisconsin tests.

RESULTS

When compared to CG patients, EG patients showed significant improvements in several measures of cognitive performance after ICRP, including verbal learning, visuospatial memory, attention, and executive functions.

CONCLUSIONS

Home-based ICRP can improve cognitive functions and prevent the deterioration of patients' cognitive deficits. As an integrated cognitive rehabilitation program aimed at potentiation of restorative and compensatory mechanisms, this approach might suggest an effective role in preserving neuronal flexibility as well as limiting the progression of cognitive dysfunction in MS.

The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) Versus the Minimal Assessment of Cognitive Function in Multiple Sclerosis (MACFIMS) for the Assessment of Cognitive Function in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis

BACKGROUND

We determined how the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) compared to the Minimal Assessment of Cognitive Function in multiple sclerosis (MACFIMS) in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values in detecting cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients.

METHODS

Sixty MS patients were recruited, 2 of whom were lost to follow-up. On the first day of the neuropsychological examination, the standard MACFIMS battery and the day after, the CANTAB (paired-associate learning (PAL), reaction time (RTI), rapid visual information processing (RVP), and spatial working memory tasks (SWM)) were completed by the patients. The sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of the CANTAB in the differentiation of cognitively impaired (CI) patients from not cognitively impaired (NCI) ones were compared with those of the MACFIMS battery using appropriate statistical tests.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight patients were categorized into two groups of CI (n=16 (27.58%)) and NCI (n=42 (72.41%)) based on the MACFIMS battery standard criteria. The best reporter indices and their cut-off scores for differentiation of CI from NCI patients in each task of the CANTAB were "total errors=13" for PAL, "between errors=26" for SWM, "five-choice reaction time=368.57" for RTI, and "mean latency=522.14" for RVP. The optimal cut-off point for distinguishing CI from NCI in the CANTAB was found to be an impaired function in 3 or more tasks [(AUC (95% CI): 0.97 (0.94-1.00); p<0.001)]. Accordingly, 36.20% of the patients were CI based on the CANTAB criteria. The inter-test agreement (CANTAB and MACFIMS batteries) was found to be the highest (Cohen's κ (95% CI): 0.80 (0.64-0.96)).

CONCLUSION

Results confirm that the CANTAB can discriminate CI from NCI MS patients with high accuracy, and its results are comparable to those of the MACFIMS battery; thus, they might be interchangeably used in the clinical practice.

Distinctive Pattern of Cognitive Disorders During Multiple Sclerosis Relapse and Recovery Based on Computerized CANTAB Tests

Background: Cognition may be affected at least as seriously as physical function during multiple sclerosis (MS) relapse, however MS relapse related cognitive disorders are still underdiagnosed and poorly characterized. The limited number of paper-pencil tests were used for assessment, and nevertheless, some significant changes were found. Unlike the paper-pencil tests, computerized batteries and tests are more sensitive and highly standardized, produce instant scoring and can minimize the learning and practice effects on follow-up. We investigated the cognition during MS relapse with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB), which has shown sensitivity to cognitive dysfunction across different clinical groups, including patients with MS. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess the cognitive functions with CANTAB battery in MS patients during relapse, in stable MS patients, and healthy controls, and to establish the timing and pattern of cognitive recovery after relapse. Methods: Sixty relapsing, thirty stable MS patients, and thirty controls were assessed with CANTAB. The relapse group was assessed during multiple sclerosis relapse and 1 and 3 months after the first assessment. Results: The score of the difficult task of spatial planning was worse in MS relapse group than in MS stable group (p < 0.05). The scores of medium difficulty tasks of spatial planning, episodic visual recall and working memory were worse in the relapse group than in the control group (p < 0.05), while in stable MS and control groups, the scores of these tasks didn't differ. The most significant improvement of speed of response, spatial planning, episodic visual recall memory and spatial working memory, was established at 1 month after the first assessment, additional improvement of spatial planning and working memory was observed at 3 months after the first assessment. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that cognitive function is affected during MS relapse. The difficult task of CANTAB battery, which assesses the spatial planning, showed MS relapse related cognitive dysfunction. The changes in scores of episodic visual recall and working memory may be related to MS relapse. A significant improvement in the speed of response, spatial planning, episodic visual recall and working memory was established at 1 month after MS relapse. The additional improvement in spatial planning for the most difficult task and working memory was observed at 3 months after MS relapse. It may be possible that the practice effect had the impact on the improvement of cognitive scores that was noted in relapsing MS patients.

Cognitive-Motor Interference in Neurodegenerative Disease: A Narrative Review and Implications for Clinical Management

This paper provides a narrative review of cognitive motor interference in neurodegeneration, including brain imaging findings specific to interference effects in neurodegenerative disease, and dual task assessment and intervention in Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), and Huntington’s disease (HD). In a healthy central nervous system the ability to process information is limited. Limitations in capacity to select and attend to inputs influence the ability to prepare and perform multiple tasks. As a result, the system balances demands, switching attention to the most task-relevant information as it becomes available. Limitations may become more apparent in persons with neurodegenerative diseases (ND) with system-specific impairments in PD, MS, and HD. These ND affect both cognitive and motor function and are thus particularly susceptible to dual task interference. Issues related to performer and task characteristics and implications of these findings for both the standard assessment of dual task abilities as well as development and evaluation of interventions aimed at improving dual task ability are discussed. In addition, we address the need for optimizing individualized assessment, intervention and evaluation of dual task function by choosing cognitive and motor tasks and measures that are sensitive to and appropriate for the individual’s level of function. Finally, we use current evidence to outline a 5-step process of clinical decision making that uses the dual task taxonomy as a framework for assessment and intervention.

Assessing the criterion validity of four highly abbreviated measures from the Minimal Assessment of Cognitive Function in Multiple Sclerosis (MACFIMS)

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive dysfunction is prevalent in multiple sclerosis. As self-reported cognitive functioning is unreliable, brief objective screening measures are needed. Utilizing widely used full-length neuropsychological tests, this study aimed to establish the criterion validity of highly abbreviated versions of the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test - Revised (BVMT-R), Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Sorting Test, and Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT) in order to begin developing an MS-specific screening battery.

METHOD

Participants from Holy Name Medical Center and the Kessler Foundation were administered one or more of these four measures. Using test-specific criterion to identify impairment at both -1.5 and -2.0 SD, receiver-operating-characteristic (ROC) analyses of BVMT-R Trial 1, Trial 2, and Trial 1 + 2 raw data (N = 286) were run to calculate the classification accuracy of the abbreviated version, as well as the sensitivity and specificity. The same methods were used for SDMT 30-s and 60-s (N = 321), D-KEFS Sorting Free Card Sort 1 (N = 120), and COWAT letters F and A (N = 298).

RESULTS

Using these definitions of impairment, each analysis yielded high classification accuracy (89.3 to 94.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

BVMT-R Trial 1, SDMT 30-s, D-KEFS Free Card Sort 1, and COWAT F possess good criterion validity in detecting impairment on their respective overall measure, capturing much of the same information as the full version. Along with the first two trials of the California Verbal Learning Test - Second Edition (CVLT-II), these five highly abbreviated measures may be used to develop a brief screening battery.

Information processing speed in multiple sclerosis: Past, present, and future

BACKGROUND

Information processing speed (IPS) is a prevalent cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS).

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to summarize the methods applied to assess IPS in MS and its theoretical conceptualization. A PubMed search was performed to select articles published between 1 January 2004 and 31 December 2013, resulting in 157 articles included.

RESULTS

The majority (54%) of studies assessed IPS with heterogeneous samples (several disease courses). Studies often report controlling for presence of other neurological disorders (60.5%), age (58.6%), education (51.6%), alcohol history (47.8%), or use of steroids (39.5%). Potential confounding variables, such as recent relapses (50.3%), history of developmental disorders (19.1%), and visual problems (29.9%), were often neglected. Assessments used to study IPS were heterogeneous (ranging from simple to complex tasks) among the studies under review, with 62 different tasks used. Only 9.6% of articles defined the construct of IPS and 22.3% discussed IPS in relation to a theoretical model.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The challenges for the upcoming decade include clarification of the definition of IPS as well as its theoretical conceptualization and a consensus on assessment. Based on the results obtained, we propose a new theoretical model, the tri-factor model of IPS.

Early and severe cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis

Objectives

To report on four new cases of severe cognitive impairment in the early stages of multiple sclerosis (MS) and to review data on the subject since few cases have been reported worldwide.

Methods

Retrospective evaluation of medical records of patients with severe cognitive impairment within the first five years of MS diagnosis. Results on neuropsychological tests and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were disclosed.

Results

Four patients from different Brazilian neurological departments in Brazil were evaluated, all presenting with severe cognitive dysfunction classified as rapidly developing dementia. MRI images showed severe brain atrophy and basal ganglia lesions in all patients.

Conclusions

Although rare, severe cognitive impairment in MS represents an important disability and may ultimately constitute another form of the disease.

Cognitive deficits in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE: To present the results of prospective and retrospective studies on multiple sclerosis patients cognitive dysfunctions, as well as to discuss the batteries of neuropsy- chological tests used in these investigations. METHOD: A systematic review was performed involving 40 studies published from 1997 to 2009, in PubMed, Scopus, Ovid, ISI Web of Knowledge, Scientific Electronic Library on line (Scielo) and Latin-American and Caribbean Center of Health Sciences Informations database. Clear description of multiple sclerosis patients cognitive deficits evaluation, study design, sample size; inclusion-exclusion and discontinuation criteria; instruments for neuropsychological evaluation, diagnostic methods, evaluated functions and detailed statistical analysis had been the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: There is consensus on cognitive impairment of multiple sclerosis patients, especially on memory, speed processing, executive function, attention and concentration domains. One has identified use of 23 batteries and 74 neuropsychological tests, despite the recommendation of Consortium of Multiple Sclerosis Centers to the application of MACFIMS battery. CONSIDERATIONS: The absence of the uniformization for multiple sclerosis patients cognitive evaluation battery has precluded to achieve evidences to recommend its incorporation on diagnostic routine. Nevertheless this tendency is already outlined.