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Ng'etich AI, Amoah ID, Bux F, Kumari S. Anthelmintic resistance in soil-transmitted helminths: One-Health considerations. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:62. [PMID: 38114766 PMCID: PMC10730643 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08088-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
The One-Health approach recognizes the intricate connection between human, animal, and environmental health, and that cooperative effort from various professionals provides comprehensive awareness and potential solutions for issues relating to the health of people, animals, and the environment. This approach has increasingly gained appeal as the standard strategy for tackling emerging infectious diseases, most of which are zoonoses. Treatment with anthelmintics (AHs) without a doubt minimizes the severe consequences of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs); however, evidence of anthelmintic resistance (AR) development to different helminths of practically every animal species and the distinct groups of AHs is overwhelming globally. In this regard, the correlation between the application of anthelmintic drugs in both human and animal populations and the consequent development of anthelmintic resistance in STHs within the context of a One-Health framework is explored. This review provides an overview of the major human and animal STHs, treatment of the STHs, AR development and drug-related factors contributing towards AR, One-Health and STHs, and an outline of some One-Health strategies that may be used in combating AR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Imali Ng'etich
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
| | - Isaac Dennis Amoah
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban, South Africa.
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Ferreira LC, Lima EF, Silva ALP, Oliveira CSM, Silva Filho GM, Sousa LC, Klafke GM, Feitosa TF, Vilela VLR. Cross-resistance between macrocyclic lactones in populations of Rhipicephalus microplus in Brazil's semiarid region. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2022; 87:109-117. [PMID: 35817880 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-022-00730-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Rhipicephalus microplus, also known as the cattle tick, is the parasite with the greatest impact on cattle in Brazil. The most common method for controlling this tick is the application of synthetic chemical acaricides, especially ivermectin, which belongs to the group of macrocyclic lactones (MLs). However, because ivermectin is widely used, there is concern about the development of cross-resistance within this chemical class. Thus, engorged females were collected from farms with a history of resistance to ivermectin, which was the only one among the MLs that was used as an endectocide drug. Using larval immersion tests (LIT), bioassays were performed with ivermectin, moxidectin and eprinomectin on populations of R. microplus from the semiarid region of the states of Paraíba and Ceará, Brazil. Epidemiological questionnaires were applied to collect information about tick control management. All the evaluated populations showed cross-resistance between ivermectin and moxidectin, but only one population showed cross-resistance between ivermectin and eprinomectin. Weekly or monthly administration of injectable 1% ivermectin on farms was reported. It was concluded that the frequent use of ivermectin may lead to the development of cross-resistance to moxidectin. For eprinomectin, despite the structural similarity, cross-resistance was not observed in three tick populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Claudino Ferreira
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG), Avenida Universitária S/N, Patos, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Estefany Ferreira Lima
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Ana Luzia Peixoto Silva
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Clarisse Silva Menezes Oliveira
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Geraldo Moreira Silva Filho
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Luana Carneiro Sousa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Marcondes Klafke
- Centro de Pesquisa em Saúde Animal (IPVDF), Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária e Desenvolvimento Rural, Estrada do Conde, 6000, Eldorado do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Thais Ferreira Feitosa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Longo Ribeiro Vilela
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG), Avenida Universitária S/N, Patos, Paraíba, Brazil.
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba (IFPB), Avenida Presidente Tancredo Neves s/n, Sousa, Paraíba, Brazil.
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Colmenares-Cruz S, González-Cortazar M, Castañeda-Ramírez GS, Andrade-Gallegos RH, Sánchez JE, Aguilar-Marcelino L. Nematocidal activity of hydroalcoholic extracts of spent substrate of Pleurotus djamor on L 3 larvae of Haemonchus contortus. Vet Parasitol 2021; 300:109608. [PMID: 34773769 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate and compare the in vitro lethal effect of the hydroalcoholic extract of the spent substrate of Pleurotus djamor ECS-123, obtained at 15 days of colonization (SPS) and at the first (SPS1) and second (SPS2) harvests, against infective larvae L3 of Haemonchus contortus. The in vitro lethal effect was evaluated by the L3 larval mortality test (LM) using six concentrations: 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/mL, with ivermectin and thiabendazole (5 mg/mL) as controls. The first harvest extract (SPS1) of strain ECS-123 was subjected to liquid-liquid bipartition, which resulted in two fractions: aqueous (PdAcO) and ethyl acetate (PdAct). The chemical fractionation of PdAct with the highest mortality rate (80.11 %) was carried out with open-column chromatography, giving a total of 13 fractions, which were analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and grouped into 5 mixtures (R1;1-3, R2;4-7, R3;8-9, R4;10-11 and R5;12-13). Subsequently, the mixtures were evaluated against H. contortus L3 larvae. Finally, the components of the mixtures with the highest nematocidal effects were evaluated by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The data were analyzed with a completely randomized design through ANOVA using the generalized linear model (GLM) with the "R" program. The purification and characterization of R4 and R5 by GC-MS revealed the presence of the following compounds: veratryl alcohol, 4-hydroxy-3,5,5 trimethyl-4-[3-oxo-1-butenyl]-2- cyclohexen-1-one, caffeine and 5,6-dimethoxy-1(3 H) isobenzofuranone. This information allowed for the identification of nematocidal compounds in the degraded substrate of P. djamor, an activity that had not been reported previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephania Colmenares-Cruz
- El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Carretera al Antiguo Aeropuerto km 2.5, CP, 30700, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Manasés González-Cortazar
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas del Sur, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Argentina No.1 Centro, CP, 62790, Xochitepec, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Gloria Sarahí Castañeda-Ramírez
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, INIFAP, Km 11 Carretera Federal Cuernavaca- Cuautla, No. 8534, Col. Progreso, CP 65550, Jiutepec, Morelos, Mexico
| | - René H Andrade-Gallegos
- El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Carretera al Antiguo Aeropuerto km 2.5, CP, 30700, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - José E Sánchez
- El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Carretera al Antiguo Aeropuerto km 2.5, CP, 30700, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico.
| | - Liliana Aguilar-Marcelino
- Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad, INIFAP, Km 11 Carretera Federal Cuernavaca- Cuautla, No. 8534, Col. Progreso, CP 65550, Jiutepec, Morelos, Mexico.
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Melo LRBD, Sousa LCD, de Menezes Oliveira CS, Alvares FBV, Ferreira LC, Bezerra RA, Athayde ACR, Feitosa TF, Vilela VLR. Resistance of bovine gastrointestinal nematodes to four classes of anthelmintics in the semiarid region of Paraíba state, Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2021; 30:e010921. [PMID: 34550213 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612021077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of four anthelmintic classes on cattle gastrointestinal nematodes in the semi-arid region of Paraiba State, Brazil, was evaluated. Twenty farms were used, testing 40 animals in each one, totaling 800 animals. Cattle were divided into four groups composed with ten animals: I, treated with albendazole sulfoxide 15%; II, treated with ivermectin 1%; III, treated with closantel 25%; IV, treated with levamisole hydrochloride 7.5%. All treatments were administered subcutaneously. For the Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT), individual fecal samples were collected on days 0 and 14, and sent for analysis of egg count per gram of feces (EPG) and larval cultures. It was observed that multiresistance was present in 95% (19/20) of the farms. Resistance to ivermectin and albendazole was observed in 95% (19/20), to closantel in 75% (15/20) and to levamisole in 20% (4/20). The most used management system was semi-intensive (75%; 15/20) and the ivermectin was the most reported drug for controlling helminths (65%; 13/20). Haemonchus spp. was the most prevalent helminth genus. It was concluded that the anthelmintic resistance of bovine gastrointestinal nematodes is high in the semi-arid of Paraíba State, Brazil, with multiresistance observed mainly to ivermectin, albendazole and closantel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lídio Ricardo Bezerra de Melo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | - Luana Carneiro de Sousa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
| | | | - Felipe Boniedj Ventura Alvares
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
| | - Larissa Claudino Ferreira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | - Roberto Alves Bezerra
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | - Ana Célia Rodrigues Athayde
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | - Thais Ferreira Feitosa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
| | - Vinícius Longo Ribeiro Vilela
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência e Saúde Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil.,Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
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Park KM, Kim SD, Park JB, Hong SJ, Ryu PD. Electrophysiological Properties of Ion Channels in Ascaris suum Tissue Incorporated into Planar Lipid Bilayers. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2021; 59:329-339. [PMID: 34470084 PMCID: PMC8413856 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2021.59.4.329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Ion channels are important targets of anthelmintic agents. In this study, we identified 3 types of ion channels in Ascaris suum tissue incorporated into planar lipid bilayers using an electrophysiological technique. The most frequent channel was a large-conductance cation channel (209 pS), which accounted for 64.5% of channels incorporated (n=60). Its open-state probability (Po) was ~0.3 in the voltage range of −60~+60 mV. A substate was observed at 55% of the main-state. The permeability ratio of Cl− to K+ (PCl/PK) was ~0.5 and PNa/PK was 0.81 in both states. Another type of cation channel was recorded in 7.5% of channels incorporated (n=7) and discriminated from the large-conductance cation channel by its smaller conductance (55.3 pS). Its Po was low at all voltages tested (~0.1). The third type was an anion channel recorded in 27.9% of channels incorporated (n=26). Its conductance was 39.0 pS and PCl/PK was 8.6±0.8. Po was ~1.0 at all tested potentials. In summary, we identified 2 types of cation and 1 type of anion channels in Ascaris suum. Gating of these channels did not much vary with voltage and their ionic selectivity is rather low. Their molecular nature, functions, and potentials as anthelmintic drug targets remain to be studied further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwon Moo Park
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea.,Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea
| | - Sun-Don Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea.,ChemOn Inc., Yongin 17162, Korea
| | - Jin Bong Park
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 35015, Korea
| | - Sung-Jong Hong
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Pan Dong Ryu
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
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Efficacy and production benefits following use of eprinomectin extended-release injection in pastured dairy heifers. Vet Parasitol 2020; 282:109157. [PMID: 32497935 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A study was conducted in grazing dairy heifers to assess anthelmintic efficacy and production responses in dairy heifers treated with a single injection of eprinomectin in an extended-release formulation over a 123 day-period. The study was conducted on a pasture-based dairy in the Southeastern United States (North Carolina) over the summer months. Sixty crossbred dairy heifers were weighed and randomly allocated into 2 groups. One group (n = 30) was given 5% eprinomectin subcutaneously in the cervical region while the other group (n = 30) was given an equivalent volume of saline. Calves were weighed every 30 days throughout the trial for calculation of average daily gain and differences in overall weight gain. In addition, fecal samples were collected at days 0, 30, 60, 90 and 123 for worm egg count and coproculture. Both groups of cattle had similar worm egg concentrations at the start of the study. However, the control group had increasing concentrations of fecal worm eggs throughout the summer months while the heifers that received eprinomectin had minimal fecal worm eggs. The primary parasite species identified in this study were Haemonchus placei, Cooperia species and Ostertagia. The heifers that received eprinomectin gained 105 + 2.8 kg during the 123-day study period, representing an average daily gain of 0.85 kg/day compared to 78.3 + 4.1 kg (0.64 kg/day) for the control group. This represented a 33 % increase in average daily gain associated with deworming. The results of this study indicate that a single dose of extended-release eprinomectin was sufficient to control parasites through a 123-day summer grazing season and that administration of the anthelmintic had a significant impact on weight gain.
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Arsenopoulos K, Minoudi S, Symeonidou I, Triantafyllidis A, Katsafadou AI, Lianou DT, Fthenakis GC, Papadopoulos E. Frequency of Resistance to Benzimidazoles of Haemonchus contortus Helminths from Dairy Sheep, Goats, Cattle and Buffaloes in Greece. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9050347. [PMID: 32375252 PMCID: PMC7280990 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9050347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The study investigated the presence of resistance to benzimidazoles in Haemonchus contortus helminths from ruminant species in Greece through the detection of the Phe/Tyr polymorphism in the amino acid at position 200 of the β-tubulin protein. In total, 288 adult female H. contortus helminths collected from the abomasum of various ruminant animals in Greece were tested. Of these, 96 were collected from sheep, 96 from goats, 48 from cattle, and 48 from buffaloes. The frequencies of the homozygous and heterozygous resistant genotypes at the position 200 of the β-tubulin gene of helminths recovered from sheep were 96.9% and 3.1%, respectively. The frequencies of the homozygous and heterozygous resistant genotypes, respectively, were 100.0% and 0.0% in helminths from goats, 25.0% and 75.0% in helminths from cattle and 8.3% and 91.7% in helminths from buffaloes. In all parasitic populations, no homozygous susceptible genotypes were detected. The present study highlighted, for the first time, the emergence of benzimidazole-resistant H. contortus in goats, cattle, and buffaloes in Greece, using an allele-specific PCR. It is postulated that benzimidazole-resistant alleles were transferred from sheep or goats to cattle and buffaloes at the commonly grazing pastures in Greece.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Arsenopoulos
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Styliani Minoudi
- Laboratory of Genetics, Development and Molecular Biology, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (S.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Isaia Symeonidou
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Alexandros Triantafyllidis
- Laboratory of Genetics, Development and Molecular Biology, School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (S.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Angeliki I. Katsafadou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece; (A.I.K.); (D.T.L.); (G.C.F.)
| | - Daphne T. Lianou
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece; (A.I.K.); (D.T.L.); (G.C.F.)
| | - George C. Fthenakis
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece; (A.I.K.); (D.T.L.); (G.C.F.)
| | - Elias Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (K.A.); (I.S.)
- Correspondence:
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Jiao Y, Preston S, Hofmann A, Taki A, Baell J, Chang BCH, Jabbar A, Gasser RB. A perspective on the discovery of selected compounds with anthelmintic activity against the barber's pole worm-Where to from here? ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2020; 108:1-45. [PMID: 32291083 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic roundworms (nematodes) cause substantial morbidity and mortality in animals worldwide. Anthelmintic treatment is central to controlling these worms, but widespread resistance to most of the commercially available anthelmintics for veterinary and agricultural use is compromising control, such that there is an urgency to discover new and effective drugs. The purpose of this article is to review information on parasitic nematodes, the treatment and control of parasitic nematode infections and aspects of discovering new anthelmintics in the context of anthelmintic resistance problems, and then to discuss some progress that our group has made in identifying selected compounds with activity against nematodes. The focus of our recent work has been on discovering new chemical entities and known drugs with anthelmintic activities against Haemonchus contortus as well as other socioeconomically important parasitic nematodes for subsequent development. Using whole worm-based phenotypic assays, we have been screening compound collections obtained via product-development-partnerships and/or collaborators, and active compounds have been assessed for their potential as anthelmintic candidates. Following the screening of 15,333 chemicals from five distinct compound collections against H. contortus, we have discovered one new chemical entity (designated SN00797439), two human kinase inhibitors (SNS-032 and AG-1295), 14 tetrahydroquinoxaline analogues, one insecticide (tolfenpyrad) and two tolfenpyrad (pyrazole-5-carboxamide) derivatives (a-15 and a-17) with anthelmintic activity in vitro. Some of these 20 'hit' compounds have selectivity against H. contortus in vitro when compared to particular human cell lines. In our opinion, some of these compounds could represent starting points for 'lead' development. Accordingly, the next research steps to be pursued include: (i) chemical optimisation of representative chemicals via structure-activity relationship (SAR) evaluations; (ii) assessment of the breadth of spectrum of anthelmintic activity on a range of other parasitic nematodes, such as strongyloids, ascaridoids, enoplids and filarioids; (iii) detailed investigations of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity (ADMET) of optimised chemicals with broad nematocidal or nematostatic activity; and (iv) establishment of the modes of action of lead candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqing Jiao
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah Preston
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University, Ballarat, VIC, Australia
| | - Andreas Hofmann
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Aya Taki
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Jonathan Baell
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Bill C H Chang
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Abdul Jabbar
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Robin B Gasser
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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