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Park SH, Kim SS, Kang DH. Development of sustained release formulations of chlorine dioxide gas for inactivation of foodborne pathogens on produce. FOOD SCI TECHNOL INT 2021; 27:726-733. [PMID: 33412944 DOI: 10.1177/1082013220976280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Formulations for the sustained release of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas were developed, and their gas-producing profiles and antimicrobial effects against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium were evaluated in spinach leaves and tomatoes under different relative humidity (RH) conditions. Sodium chlorite (NaClO2) and citric acid were used to generate ClO2 gas, and the generation rate and maximum ClO2 gas concentration were controlled using diatomaceous earth (DE) and calcium chloride (CaCl2). Under 90% RH conditions, sustained release of ClO2 gas was achieved in presence of DE. When 12 g of DE was added to the mixture, the ClO2 gas concentration remained constant at 18 ± 1 ppmv for approximately 28 h. At 50% RH, addition of CaCl2 was effective in maintaining a constant ClO2 gas concentration. When 0.05 g of CaCl2 was added to mixtures containing 0.5 g of DE, ClO2 gas concentration remained constant at 11 ± 1 ppmv for approximately 26 h. Treatment with 30 ppmv of ClO2 gas at 90% RH achieved more than 6.16 and 5.48 log reductions of E. coli O157:H7 and S. Typhimurium on spinach leaves (in 15 min), and more than 6.78 and 6.34 log reductions of the same in tomatoes (in 10 min). The sustained release formulations for ClO2 gas, developed in this study, could facilitate the use of ClO2 gas as an antimicrobial agent in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Hyun Park
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kongju National University, Chungnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Soon Kim
- Department of Food Engineering, Dankook University, Chungnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyun Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, Research Institute for Agricultural and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Effect of temperature on chlorine dioxide inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on spinach, tomatoes, stainless steel, and glass surfaces. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 275:39-45. [PMID: 29627661 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate how treatment temperature influences the solubility of ClO2 gas and the antimicrobial effect of ClO2 gas against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on produce and food contact surfaces. Produce and food contact surfaces inoculated with a combined culture cocktail of three strains each of the three foodborne pathogens were processed in a treatment chamber with 20 ppmv ClO2 gas at 15 or 25 °C under the same conditions of absolute humidity (11.2-12.3 g/m3) for up to 30 min. As treatment time increased, ClO2 gas treatment at 15 °C caused significantly more (p < 0.05) inactivation of the three pathogens than treatment at 25 °C. ClO2 gas treatment at 25 °C for 30 min resulted in 1.15 to 1.54, 1.53 to 1.88, and 1.00 to 1.78 log reductions of the three pathogens on spinach leaves, tomatoes, and stainless steel No.4, respectively. ClO2 gas treatment at 15 °C for 30 min caused 2.53 to 2.88, 2.82 to 3.23, and 2.37 to 3.03 log reductions of the three pathogens on spinach leaves, tomatoes, and stainless steel No.4, respectively. Treatment with ClO2 gas at 25 °C for 20 min resulted in 1.88 to 2.31 log reductions of the three pathogens on glass while >5.91 to 6.82 log reductions of these pathogens occurred after 20 min when treated at 15 °C. Residual ClO2 levels after gas treatment at 15 °C were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those at 25 °C. The results of this study can help the food processing industry establish optimum ClO2 gas treatment conditions for maximizing the antimicrobial efficacy of ClO2 gas.
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Influence of surface properties of produce and food contact surfaces on the efficacy of chlorine dioxide gas for the inactivation of foodborne pathogens. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Yi Y, Hao LM, Ma SR, Wu JH, Wang T, Lin S, Zhang ZX, Qi JC. A pilot study on using chlorine dioxide gas for disinfection of gastrointestinal endoscopes. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2016; 17:526-36. [PMID: 27381729 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1500327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This pilot study of employing chlorine dioxide (CD) gas to disinfect gastrointestinal endoscopes was conducted to meet the expectations of many endoscopy units in China for a high-efficiency and low-cost disinfectant. METHODS An experimental prototype with an active circulation mode was designed to use CD gas to disinfect gastrointestinal endoscopes. One type of testing device composed of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubes (2 m long, inner diameter 1 mm) and bacterial carrier containers was used to simulate the channel of the endoscope. PTFE bacterial carriers inoculated with Bacillus atrophaeus with or without organic burden were used to evaluate the sporicidal activity of CD gas. Factors including exposure dosage, relative humidity (RH), and flow rate (FR) influencing the disinfection effect of CD gas were investigated. Moreover, an autoptic disinfecting test on eight real gastrointestinal endoscopes after clinical use was performed using the experimental prototype. RESULTS RH, exposure dosage, organic burden, and the FR through the channel significantly (P<0.05) affected the disinfection efficacy of CD gas for a long and narrow lumen. The log reduction increased as FR decreased. Treatment with 4 mg/L CD gas for 30 min at 0.8 L/min FR and 75% RH, resulted in complete inactivation of spores. Furthermore, all eight endoscopes with a maximum colony-forming unit of 915 were completely disinfected. The cost was only 3 CNY (0.46 USD) for each endoscope. CONCLUSIONS The methods and results reported in this study could provide a basis for further studies on using CD gas for the disinfection of endoscopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Yi
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Li-Mei Hao
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Shu-Ren Ma
- Department of Digestive Endoscopy, General Hospital of Shenyang Military Region, Shenyang 110840, China
| | - Jin-Hui Wu
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Song Lin
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Zong-Xing Zhang
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
| | - Jian-Cheng Qi
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin 300161, China
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Wang T, Wu J, Qi J, Hao L, Yi Y, Zhang Z. Kinetics of Inactivation of Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger Spores and Staphylococcus albus on Paper by Chlorine Dioxide Gas in an Enclosed Space. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:3061-3069. [PMID: 26969707 PMCID: PMC4959078 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03940-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger spore and Staphylococcus albus are typical biological indicators for the inactivation of airborne pathogens. The present study characterized and compared the behaviors of B. subtilis subsp. niger spores and S. albus in regard to inactivation by chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas under different gas concentrations and relative humidity (RH) conditions. The inactivation kinetics under different ClO2 gas concentrations (1 to 5 mg/liter) were determined by first-order and Weibull models. A new model (the Weibull-H model) was established to reveal the inactivation tendency and kinetics for ClO2 gas under different RH conditions (30 to 90%). The results showed that both the gas concentration and RH were significantly (P < 0.05) and positively correlated with the inactivation of the two chosen indicators. There was a rapid improvement in the inactivation efficiency under high RH (>70%). Compared with the first-order model, the Weibull and Weibull-H models demonstrated a better fit for the experimental data, indicating nonlinear inactivation behaviors of the vegetative bacteria and spores following exposure to ClO2 gas. The times to achieve a six-log reduction of B. subtilis subsp. niger spore and S. albus were calculated based on the established models. Clarifying the kinetics of inactivation of B. subtilis subsp. niger spores and S. albus by ClO2 gas will allow the development of ClO2 gas treatments that provide an effective disinfection method. IMPORTANCE Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas is a novel and effective fumigation agent with strong oxidization ability and a broad biocidal spectrum. The antimicrobial efficacy of ClO2 gas has been evaluated in many previous studies. However, there are presently no published models that can be used to describe the kinetics of inactivation of airborne pathogens by ClO2 gas under different gas concentrations and RH conditions. The first-order and Weibull (Weibull-H) models established in this study can characterize and compare the behaviors of Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger spores and Staphylococcus albus in regard to inactivation by ClO2 gas, determine the kinetics of inactivation of two chosen strains under different conditions of gas concentration and RH, and provide the calculated time to achieve a six-log reduction. These results will be useful to determine effective conditions for ClO2 gas to inactivate airborne pathogens in contaminated air and other environments and thus prevent outbreaks of airborne illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
| | - Jinhui Wu
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
| | - Jiancheng Qi
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
| | - Limei Hao
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
| | - Ying Yi
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
| | - Zongxing Zhang
- Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Tianjin, China
- National Bio-Protection Engineering Center, Tianjin, China
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Wang T, Qi J, Wu J, Hao L, Yi Y, Lin S, Zhang Z. Response surface modeling for the inactivation of Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger spores by chlorine dioxide gas in an enclosed space. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2016; 66:508-517. [PMID: 26853499 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2016.1150365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger spores are a commonly used biological indicator to evaluate the disinfection of an enclosed space. In the present study, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas was applied to inactivate B. subtilis subsp. niger spores in an enclosed space. The effects of the ClO2 gas concentration (1-3 mg/l), relative humidity (RH, 30-70%) and exposure time (30-90 min) were investigated using a response surface methodology (RSM). A three-factor Box-Behnken experimental design was used. The obtained data were adequately fitted to a second-order polynomial model with an R2adj of 0.992. The ClO2 gas concentration, RH and exposure time all significantly (P<0.05) and positively correlated with the inactivation of B. subtilis subsp. niger spores. The interaction between the ClO2 gas concentration and RH as well as that between the exposure time and RH indicated significant and synergistic effects (P<0.05). The predictive model was validated by additional eight experiments and proven to be with good accuracy. Overall, this model established by the RSM could show the trend of the inactivation of spores, indicate the interactions between important factors, and provide a reference to determine effective conditions for the disinfection in different enclosed spaces by ClO2 gas. IMPLICATIONS The inactivation of indoor biological contaminants plays an important role in preventing the transmission of pathogens and ensuring human safety. The predictive model using response surface methodology indicates the influence and interaction of the main factors on the inactivation of Bacillus subtilis subsp. niger spores by ClO2 gas, and can predict a ClO2 gas treatment condition to achieve an effective sterilization of enclosed spaces. The results in this paper will provide a reference for the application of ClO2 gas treatments for indoor disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Jiancheng Qi
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhui Wu
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Limei Hao
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Yi
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Song Lin
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
| | - Zongxing Zhang
- a Institute of Medical Equipment, Academy of Military Medical Sciences , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
- b National Bio-protection Engineering Center , Tianjin , People's Republic of China
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Shirasaki Y, Matsuura A, Uekusa M, Ito Y, Hayashi T. A study of the properties of chlorine dioxide gas as a fumigant. Exp Anim 2016; 65:303-10. [PMID: 27041456 PMCID: PMC4976244 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.15-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a strong oxidant that possesses an antimicrobial activity. We demonstrated here that ClO2 gas is easily generated by mixing 3.35% sodium chlorite solution (Purogene) and 85% phosphoric acid at a 10:1 volume ratio without using an expensive machine. In a test room (87 m(3)), experiments were carried out using various amounts of sodium chlorite solution (0.25 ml/m(3) to 20.0 ml/m(3)). The gas concentration increased in a sodium chlorite volume-dependent manner and reached peak values of from 0.8 ppm to 40.8 ppm at 2 h-3 h, and then gradually decreased. No differences in gas concentrations were observed between 0.1 and 2.5 m above the floor, indicating that the gas was evenly distributed. Under high-humidity (approximately 80% relative humidity), colony formation of both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was completely inhibited by ClO2 gas exposure at 1.0 ml/m(3) sodium chlorite solution (mean maximal concentration of 3.0 ppm). Exposure at 4.0 ml/m(3) sodium chlorite solution (mean maximal concentration of 10.6 ppm) achieved complete inactivation of Bacillus atrophaeus spores. In contrast, without humidification, the efficacy of ClO2 gas was apparently attenuated, suggesting that the atmospheric moisture is indispensable. Delicate electronic devices (computer, camera, etc.) operated normally, even after being subjected to more than 20 times of fumigation. Considering that our method for gas generation is simple, reproducible, and highly effective at decontaminating microbes, our approach is expected to serve as an inexpensive alternative method for cleaning and disinfecting animal facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Shirasaki
- Biological Research Department, Daiichi Sankyo RD Novare Co., Ltd., 1-16-13 Kita-Kasai, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo 134-8630, Japan
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Inactivation Kinetics and Mechanism of a Human Norovirus Surrogate on Stainless Steel Coupons via Chlorine Dioxide Gas. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 82:116-23. [PMID: 26475110 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02489-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute gastroenteritis caused by human norovirus is a significant public health issue. Fresh produce and seafood are examples of high-risk foods associated with norovirus outbreaks. Food contact surfaces also have the potential to harbor noroviruses if exposed to fecal contamination, aerosolized vomitus, or infected food handlers. Currently, there is no effective measure to decontaminate norovirus on food contact surfaces. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas is a strong oxidizer and is used as a decontaminating agent in food processing plants. The objective of this study was to determine the kinetics and mechanism of ClO2 gas inactivation of a norovirus surrogate, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), on stainless steel (SS) coupons. MNV-1 was inoculated on SS coupons at the concentration of 10(7) PFU/coupon. The samples were treated with ClO2 gas at 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 4 mg/liter for up to 5 min at 25°C and a relative humidity of 85%, and virus survival was determined by plaque assay. Treatment of the SS coupons with ClO2 gas at 2 mg/liter for 5 min and 2.5 mg/liter for 2 min resulted in at least a 3-log reduction in MNV-1, while no infectious virus was recovered at a concentration of 4 mg/liter even within 1 min of treatment. Furthermore, it was found that the mechanism of ClO2 gas inactivation included degradation of viral protein, disruption of viral structure, and degradation of viral genomic RNA. In conclusion, treatment with ClO2 gas can serve as an effective method to inactivate a human norovirus surrogate on SS contact surfaces.
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Eichner A, Gollmer A, Späth A, Bäumler W, Regensburger J, König B, Maisch T. Fast and effective inactivation of Bacillus atrophaeus endospores using light-activated derivatives of vitamin B2. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 14:387-96. [PMID: 25423452 DOI: 10.1039/c4pp00285g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Highly resistant endospores may cause severe problems in medicine as well as in the food and packaging industries. We found that bacterial endospores can be inactivated quickly with reactive oxygen species (ROS) that were generated by a new generation of flavin photosensitizers. Flavins like the natural compound vitamin B2 are already known to produce ROS but they show a poor antimicrobial photodynamic killing efficacy due to the lack of positive charges. Therefore we synthesized new flavin photosensitizers that have one (FLASH-01a) or eight (FLASH-07a) positive charges and can hence attach to the negatively charged surface of endospores. In this study we used standardized Bacillus atrophaeus endospores (ATCC 9372) as a biological surrogate model for a proof-of-concept study of photodynamic inactivation experiments using FLASH-01a and FLASH-07a. After incubation of spores with different flavin concentrations, the flavin derivatives were excited with blue light at a light dose of 70 J cm(-2). The inactivation of spores was investigated either in suspension or after attachment to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) surfaces. Incubation of spores suspended in Millipore water with 4 mM FLASH-01a for 10 seconds and irradiation with blue light for 10 seconds caused a biologically relevant decrease of spore survival of 3.5 log10 orders. Using FLASH-07a under the same conditions we achieved a decrease of 4.4 log10 orders. Immobilized spores on PET surfaces were efficiently killed with 7.0 log10 orders using 8 mM FLASH-07a. The total treatment time (incubation + irradiation) was as short as 20 seconds. The results of this study show evidence that endospores can be fastly and effectively inactivated with new generations of flavin photosensitizers that may be useful for industrial or medical applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Eichner
- Department of Dermatology, Regensburg University Hospital, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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Decontamination of the Hospital Environment: New Technologies for Infection Control. CURRENT TREATMENT OPTIONS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40506-015-0037-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Czarra JA, Adams JK, Carter CL, Hill WA, Coan PN. Exposure to chlorine dioxide gas for 4 hours renders Syphacia ova nonviable. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2014; 53:364-367. [PMID: 25199091 PMCID: PMC4113235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/18/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of our study was to evaluate the efficacy of chlorine dioxide gas for environmental decontamination of Syphacia spp. ova. We collected Syphacia ova by perianal cellophane tape impression of pinworm-infected mice. Tapes with attached ova were exposed to chlorine dioxide gas for 1, 2, 3, or 4 h. After gas exposure, ova were incubated in hatching medium for 6 h to promote hatching. For controls, tapes with attached ova were maintained at room temperature for 1, 2, 3, and 4 h without exposure to chlorine dioxide gas and similarly incubated in hatch medium for 6 h. Ova viability after incubation was assessed by microscopic examination. Exposure to chlorine dioxide gas for 4 h rendered 100% of Syphacia spp. ova nonviable. Conversely, only 17% of ova on the 4-h control slide were nonviable. Other times of exposure to chlorine dioxide gas resulted in variable effectiveness. These data suggest that exposure to chlorine dioxide gas for at least 4 h is effective for surface decontamination of Syphacia spp. ova.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane A Czarra
- Office of Laboratory Animal Care, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
| | - Joleen K Adams
- Office of Laboratory Animal Care, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
| | - Christopher L Carter
- Office of Laboratory Animal Care, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
| | - William A Hill
- Animal Care Unit, Office of Research
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Patricia N Coan
- Office of Laboratory Animal Care, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
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Wendling MQS, Lastivka AT, Rogers JV. Inactivation of Bacillus AnthracisSpores on All-Weather Paper. APPLIED BIOSAFETY 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/153567601301800305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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