Enterobacterial detection and Escherichia coli antimicrobial resistance in parrots seized from the illegal wildlife trade

Pandemic Clones of CTX-M-15 Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae ST15, ST147, and ST307 in Companion Parrots

Psittacine birds are commonly kept as companion birds and the maintenance of these birds in captivity may represent a zoonotic risk and contribute to the propagation of multidrug-resistant and β-lactamase extended-spectrum (ESBLs)-producing pathogens. This study aimed to identify and characterize strains of the Klebsiella pneumoniae complex isolated from diseased psittacine birds, determining virulence and resistance profiles. K. pneumoniae strains were isolated from 16 birds (16/46). All strains carried more than three virulence genes, with a high frequency of fimH and kpn (93.75%), uge (87.52%), and irp-2 (81.25%) genes. The antimicrobial susceptibility revealed that 3/16 strains were ESBL producers. Genomic analysis revealed that CTX-M-15-positive strains belonged to sequence types (STs) ST15, ST147, and ST307, characterized as international clones associated with outbreaks of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) worldwide.

Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli survey in wild seabirds at a pristine atoll in the southern Atlantic Ocean, Brazil: First report of the O25b-ST131 clone harboring blaCTX-M-8

Antimicrobial resistance is among the most serious public health threats of the 21st century, with great impact in terms of One Health. Among antimicrobial resistant bacteria (ARB), extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-EC) represent major challenges to human healthcare. Wild birds have been commonly used as environmental bioindicators of ESBL-EC. Remote locations represent a unique opportunity to evaluate the occurrence, dissemination and epidemiology of ARB in the environment. Herein we surveyed ESBL-EC in 204 cloacal swabs from six nonsynanthropic seabird species at the pristine Rocas Atoll, Brazil. We identified ESBL-EC isolates in 2.4% (5/204) of the tested seabirds, all in magnificent frigatebirds (Fregata magnificens). We isolated strains of O25b-ST131-fimH22 harboring gene bla_CTX-M-8 (3 clones), ST117 harboring gene bla_SHV-12, and a novel ST11350 (clonal complex 349) harboring genes bla_CTX-M-55 and fosA3. All the isolates presented Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) virulence profiles. We suggest that magnificent frigatebirds may act as "flying bridges", transporting ESBL-EC and ARGs from an anthropogenically-impacted archipelago geographically close to our pristine and remote study site. The characteristics of our isolates suggest zoonotic potential and, despite the apparent good health of all the evaluated birds, may represent a hypothetical potential threat to the avian population using the atoll. To our knowledge, this is the first description of: (1) the pandemic and public health relevant ST131-O25b harboring bla_CTX-M-8 worldwide; (2) ST131-fimH22 in wild birds; and (3); fosA3 in wildlife. Our findings expand the current epidemiological knowledge regarding host and geographical distribution of ESBL-EC and ARGs in wild birds, and emphasize the disseminating characteristics and adaptability of ST131 and ST117 strains within the human-animal-interface. Herein we discuss the involvement of nonsynanthropic wild birds in the epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance and their potential as sentinels of ESBL E. coli in insular environments.

Illegal Wildlife Trade and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Pervasive Impacts to Species, Ecosystems and Human Health

Emerging infectious disease (EID) events can be traced to anthropogenic factors, including the movement of wildlife through legal and illegal trade. This paper focuses on the link between illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and infectious disease pathogens. A literature review through Web of Science and relevant conference proceedings from 1990 to 2020 resulted in documenting 82 papers and 240 identified pathogen cases. Over 60% of the findings referred to pathogens with known zoonotic potential and five cases directly referenced zoonotic spillover events. The diversity of pathogens by taxa included 44 different pathogens in birds, 47 in mammals, 16 in reptiles, two in amphibians, two in fish, and one in invertebrates. This is the highest diversity of pathogen types in reported literature related to IWT. However, it is likely not a fully representative sample due to needed augmentation of surveillance and monitoring of IWT and more frequent pathogen testing on recovered shipments. The emergence of infectious disease through human globalization has resulted in several pandemics in the last decade including SARS, MERS, avian influenza H1N1,and Ebola. We detailed the growing body of literature on this topic since 2008 and highlight the need to detect, document, and prevent spillovers from high-risk human activities, such as IWT.

Use of MALDI-TOF for identification and surveillance of gram-negative bacteria in captive wild psittacines

Microbiological studies of the sanitary and health status of psittacine birds that will be reintroduced is important in evaluating whether these animals act as carriers of pathogenic agents to other animals and humans. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is a faster and more accurate method to identify bacteria than conventional microbiology methods. The aim of this study was to evaluate the health status of psittacines housed in captivity, by assessment of Gram-negative bacteria from fecal microbiota through MALDI- TOF MS identification. The results indicate high frequency of Gram-negative bacteria in feces (96.5%), especially from the Enterobacteriaceae family (88.7%). The most prevalent bacteria were Escherichia coli (39.0%), Proteus vulgaris (12.2%), Klebsiella spp. (12.1%) and Raoultella ornithinolytica (8.7%). Proteus hauseri, Citrobacter spp., Morganella morgannii, Providencia rettgeri, Enterobacter spp. and Escherichia hermannii were isolated with lower frequency. . All these agents are potentially pathogenic for parrots and can cause systemic infections in other animals and humans. These findings reinforce that MALDI- TOF MS proved to be a rapid and accurate method of identification of the microorganism and evaluation of the health status of psittacines, providing relevant data to assist decision-making regarding the sanitary protocols in wildlife centers, and possible future reintroduction of wild birds.

Occurrence and Quantification of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in the Gastrointestinal Microbiome of Two Wild Seabird Species With Contrasting Behaviors

Antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) are environmental pollutants and anthropization indicators. We evaluated human interference in the marine ecosystem through the ocurrence and quantification (real-time PCRs) of 21 plasmid-mediated ARGs in enema samples of 25 wild seabirds, upon admission into rehabilitation: kelp gull (Larus dominicanus, n = 14) and Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus, n = 11). Overall, higher resistance values were observed in kelp gulls (non-migratory coastal synanthropic) in comparison with Magellanic penguins (migratory pelagic non-synanthropic). There were significant differences between species (respectively, kelp gull and Magellanic penguin): ARGs occurrence (bla _TEM [p = 0.032]; tetM [p = 0.015]; tetA [p = 0.003]; and sulII [p = 0.007]), mean number of ARGs per sample (p = 0.031), ARGs mean load percentage (aadA [p = 0.045], tetA [p = 0.031], tetM [p = 0.016], bla _TEM [p = 0.032], sulII [p = 0.008]), percentage of genes conferring resistance to an antimicrobial class (betalactams [p = 0.036] and sulfonamides [p = 0.033]), mean number of genes conferring resistance to one or more antimicrobial classes (p = 0.024]), percentage of multiresistant microbiomes (p = 0.032), and clustering (p = 0.006). These differences are likely due to these species' contrasting biology and ecology - key factors in the epidemiology of ARGs in seabirds. Additionally, this is the first report of mecA in seabirds in the Americas. Further studies are necessary to clarify the occurrence and diversity of ARGs in seabirds, and their role as potential sources of infection and dispersal within the One Health chain of ARGs.

The frequency of tetracycline resistance genes in Escherichia coli strains isolated from healthy and diarrheic pet birds

BACKGROUND

Pet birds have close contact to human and resistant bacteria can transfer from birds to intestinal flora of human.

AIMS

This study was carried out to determine the tetracycline resistance genes in Escherichia coli strains associated with enteric problem in pet birds.

METHODS

Totally, 295 cloacal swabs were collected from 195 healthy and 100 diarrheic pet birds in Isfahan province, Iran. The presence of E. coli was identified by conventional bacteriological, biochemical, and molecular examinations. The presence of tetracycline resistance genes (tetA, tetB, tetC, tetD, tetE, tetG, tetK, tetL, tetM, tetO, and tetS genes) were examined using three multiplex PCR.

RESULTS

The results showed that 18.9% and 43% of cloacal samples of healthy and diarrheic pet birds contained E. coli, respectively. The mean percentage of E. coli isolated from cloacal samples of diarrheic birds was significantly higher than the healthy birds (46.6 vs 23.1%). In healthy birds, out of 37 E. coli isolates, 10 isolates were resistant to tetracycline, harboring tetA and tetB genes (3 tetA vs 7 tetB), but in the diarrheic birds, of 26 resistance E. coli, 11, 12, and 3 strains contained tetA (42.3%), tetB (46.15), and tetA+tetB (11.53%) genes. The percentage of tet genes were significantly higher in diarrheic birds than healthy birds (58.9 vs 24.0%).

CONCLUSION

Both resistant genes of tetA and tetB were detected in E. coli isolates that are related with efflux pump activity. These genes can be transferred between Gram-negative bacteria and they have the potential ability to be transferred to the environment and human flora.

Pet birds as potential reservoirs of virulent and antibiotic resistant zoonotic bacteria

Bacterial pathogens carried by pet birds are considered a risk for birds, workers, and pet owners. This study investigated the potential of pet birds as reservoirs for virulent multidrug-resistant (MDR) zoonotic bacteria and assessed the genetic relatedness and diversity of bacterial isolates from pet birds and human contacts. Cloacal and tracheal swabs from 125 pet birds and 70 hand swabs from human contacts were collected. The results revealed that the pet birds were reservoirs for Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae (17.6 %, each), and Staphylococcus aureus (15.2 %). These isolates were also identified in their human contacts, at percentages of 14.3 %, 12.9 %, and 24.3 %, respectively. Virulence associated genes were identified from E. coli (stx2, stx2f, eaeA, and hlyA), K. pneumoniae (fimH, TraT, and magA), and S. aureus (PVL, hly, sea, sed genes) isolates. Multidrug-resistant E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and S. aureus were highly prevalent (81.3 %, 90.3 %, and 61.1 %, respectively). The genetic relationship between the E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from the pet birds and human contacts were determined by ERIC-PCR, while, RAPD-PCR was used for the S. aureus isolates. ERIC-PCR was found to have the highest discriminatory power. The clustering of the isolates from the pet birds and human contacts indicated potential transmission between the birds and workers. In conclusion, pet birds could act as potential reservoirs for zoonotic bacterial pathogens; thus, posing a risk to their human contacts.

Bactérias zoonóticas isoladas de Passeriformes silvestres recuperados do tráfico de animais no estado do Ceará/Brasil

RESUMO A ordem dos Passeriformes é uma das mais pressionadas pelas ações antrópicas, especialmente as relativas ao tráfico de animais, que, devido às más condições de manejo e higiênico-sanitárias, favorecem a infecção dos espécimes por patógenos virulentos e zoonóticos, como cepas de Escherichia coli e Salmonella spp., cujo isolamento em suabes cloacais, bem como a análise dos genes de virulência das cepas de E. coli foram objetivos do estudo. Para isso, 120 Passeriformes silvestres nativos, recebidos pelo Cetas/CE, foram avaliados individualmente. As cepas isoladas foram submetidas a teste de disco difusão para determinação da sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos. Em etapa posterior, foi realizada PCR para a detecção de oito genes de virulência dos principais patotipos diarreiogênicos de E. coli. Quanto aos resultados, nenhuma cepa de Salmonella spp. foi isolada, no entanto a ocorrência de E. coli foi de 40,8%. Foi observada elevada resistência, principalmente aos antimicrobianos tetraciclina, ampicilina e sulfazotrim, ocorrendo multirresistência em 42,8% das cepas. Pela análise molecular, foram diagnosticados quatro entre os nove genes pesquisados, com a identificação de EPEC típicas, EPEC atípicas, ETEC, EHEC e EAEC. Os resultados apontam para a importância de Passeriformes como possíveis disseminadores de zoonoses.

Survey on pathogenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. in captive cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)

We surveyed healthy captive cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) for Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. Cloacal swabs were collected from 94 cockatiels kept in commercial breeders, private residencies and pet shops in the cities of São Paulo/SP and Niterói/RJ (Brazil). Three strains of E. coli from each individual were tested for the presence of ExPEC-, APEC- and DEC-related genes. We evaluated the bla_TEM, bla_SHV, bla_OXA, bla_CMY, bla_CTX-M, tetA, tetB, aadA, aphA, strAB, sul1, sul2, sul3, qnrA, qnrD, qnrB, qnrS, oqxAB, aac (6)'-Ib-cr, qepA resistance genes and markers for plasmid incompatibility groups. Salmonella spp. was not detected. E. coli was isolated in 10% of the animals (9/94). Four APEC genes (ironN, ompT, iss and hlyF) were detected in two strains (2/27-7%), and iss (1/27-4%) in one isolate. The highest resistance rates were observed with amoxicillin (22/27-82%), ampicillin (21/27-79%), streptomycin (18/27-67%), tetracycline (11/27-41%). Multiresistance was verified in 59% (16/27) of the isolates. We detected strAB, bla_TEM, tetA, tetB, aadA, aphaA, sul1, sul2, sul3 resistance genes and plasmid Inc groups in 20 (74%) of the strains. E. coli isolated from these cockatiels are of epidemiological importance, since these pets could transmit pathogenic and multiresistant microorganisms to humans and other animals.

Investigação de Salmonella spp. em Psittaciformes exóticos e nativos mantidos em cativeiro na região central do Rio Grande do Sul

RESUMO As doenças infecciosas são reconhecidamente causadoras de declínios populacionais de animais silvestres e algumas delas podem representar ameaça à saúde pública. O presente estudo objetivou investigar a ocorrência de Salmonella spp. em Psittaciformes exóticos e nativos mantidos em cativeiro na região central do Rio Grande do Sul, além de comparar os resultados obtidos por meio do método bacteriológico convencional e da reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), mediante a utilização de material fecal do ambiente, evitando-se o estresse da contenção. Durante os meses de agosto/2016 e setembro/2016 foram coletadas amostras de fezes frescas de 90 gaiolas em dois criatórios, representando 180 aves. Com as duas técnicas empregadas nas análises, as amostras foram negativas para Salmonella spp., contudo foram detectadas bactérias da família Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia coli, Cedecea sp. e Citrobacter freundii. Considera-se importante a continuidade do monitoramento dos criatórios, já que o patógeno investigado pode estar em aves portadoras e se manifestar em situações de estresse, representando riscos enquanto zoonose e prejuízos à saúde das aves.

Molecular diagnosis of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli isolated from Psittaciformes of illegal wildlife trade

ABSTRACT: Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) are considered one of the major causes of human diarrhea in developing countries. Some studies have pointed wild birds as important reservoirs for these pathogens. However, scarce species from the Psittaciformes order have been investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of DEC strains in Psittaciformes from illegal wildlife trade. A total of 78 E. coli strains isolated from cloacal swab samples of 167 Psittaciformes in the Ceará State, Brazil, were evaluated regarding the presence of the following DEC virulence genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR): eaeA and bfpA genes (Enteropathogenic E. coli - EPEC); stx1 and stx2 (Shiga toxin-producing E. coli - STEC); estA and eltB (Enterotoxigenic E. coli - ETEC); ipaH (Enteroinvasive E. coli - EIEC); aatA and aaiC (Enteroaggregative E. coli - EAEC). Positive strains for eaeA and bfpA genes were considered typical EPEC, while strain positive exclusively for the eaeA gene were classified as atypical EPEC. The eaeA gene was identified in 20 E. coli strains and bfpA in 22 isolates. In addition, 11 and 9 belonged to tEPEC and aEPEC, respectively. No strain was positive for stx1 or stx2. A total of 47 (60.3%) strains and a total of 136 birds (81.4%) were negative for the remaining DEC pathotypes investigated. In conclusion, psittacine from illegal wildlife trade in Ceará State, Brazil, presented a relevant prevalence of typical and atypical EPEC, potentially playing a role as reservoirs of DEC strains in the environment. Thus, proper control measures must be adopted to block the spread of these pathogens.

Survey of pathogens in threatened wild red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) nestlings in Rasa Island, Brazil

The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is a threatened species of psittacine bird that inhabit coastal regions of Brazil. In view of the threat of this species, the aim of this study was to perform a health evaluation in wild nestlings in Rasa Island, determining the prevalence of enterobacteria and infectious agents according to type of nest. Blood samples were collected from 64 birds and evaluated for antibodies of Chlamydia psittaci by commercial dot-blot ELISA. Cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs samples were collected from 23 birds from artificial wooden nests, 15 birds from PVC nests and 2 birds from natural nests for microbiological analysis. Swab samples were collected from 58 parrots for C. psittaci detection by PCR and from 50 nestlings for Avian Influenza, Newcastle Disease and West Nile viruses’ detection analysis by real-time RT-PCR. Ten bacterial genera and 17 species were identified, and the most prevalent were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella oxytoca. There was no influence of the type of nest in the nestlings’ microbiota. All samples tested by ELISA and PCR were negative. There is currently insufficient information available about the health of A. brasiliensis and data of this study provide a reference point for future evaluations and aid in conservation plans.

Infectious Diseases

The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds. The chapter includes history, etiology, susceptible hosts, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, lesion, diagnosis, zoonosis, Treatment and control strategy of Tuberculosis, Salmonellosis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacteriosis, Lyme disease, other bacterial infection, Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza infection, West Nile Virus infection, Usutu virus infection, Avian Borna Virus infection, Beak and feather disease, other viral infection, Toxoplasmosis, Giardiasis, Cryptosporidiosis, other parasitic infection, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis, Other fungal infections.

CHARACTERIZATION OF VIRULENCE GENES AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF LUNG PATHOGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATES IN FOREST MUSK DEER (MOSCHUS BEREZOVSKII)

This study investigated genotypic diversity, 26 virulence genes, and antimicrobial susceptibility of lung pathogenic Escherichia coli (LPEC) isolated from forest musk deer. Associations between virulence factors (VFs) and phylogenetic group, between antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and phylogenetic group, and between AMR and VFs were subsequently assessed. The results showed 30 LPEC isolated were grouped into seven different clusters (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G). The detection rates of crl (90%), kpsMT II (76.67%), mat (76.67%), and ompA (80%) were over 75%. The most frequent types of resistance were to amoxicillin (100%), sulfafurazole (100%), ampicillin (96.67%), and tetracycline (96.67%), with 93.33% (n = 28) of isolates resistant to more than eight types of drugs. There were significant relationships between resistance to cefalotin and the presence of iucD(a) (P < 0.001), papC (P = 0.032), and kpsMT II (P = 0.028); between resistance to chloromycetin and the presence of irp2 (P = 0.004) and vat (P = 0.047); between resistance to nalidixic acid and the presence of crl (P = 0.002) and iucD(a) (P = 0.004); and between resistance to ampicillin/sulbactam and the presence of vat (P = 0.013). These results indicated there could be some association between resistance and VFs, and there is a great need for the prudent use of antimicrobial agents in LPEC.

Isolamento de Salmonella spp. e Escherichia coli de psittaciformes: relevância em saúde pública

RESUMO: O tráfico de animais selvagens consiste numa atividade ilegal exercida em diversas partes do mundo, e o Brasil, em função de sua grande extensão territorial e vasta biodiversidade, é um país bastante atingido por essa prática. O grupo de animais em perigo que mais se destaca é o das aves e, entre elas, as da ordem Psittaciformes. Essas são as mais traficadas por serem consideradas inteligentes e possuidoras de grandes habilidades de comunicação. Por isso, são retiradas indiscriminadamente da natureza. No entanto, as condições em que essas aves são capturadas e mantidas em cativeiro favorecem o aparecimento de diversas enfermidades, entre elas as causadas pelas enterobactérias. As bactérias que mais causam mortes e problemas em psitacídeos são as do gênero Salmonella e Escherichia coli , responsáveis pela salmonelose e pela colibacilose, respectivamente. Este trabalho apresenta uma revisão da literatura sobre essas enterobactérias em Psittaciformes, ressaltando o potencial zoonótico desses agentes.

Measuring the Level of Agreement Between Cloacal Gram's Stains and Bacterial Cultures in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots ( Amazona ventralis )

Cloacal or fecal Gram's stains and bacterial cultures are routinely performed during avian physical examinations to assess the microbial flora of the gastrointestinal tract. Although cloacal or fecal Gram's stains and bacterial cultures are considered routine diagnostic procedures, the level of agreement between the individual tests has not been determined. To investigate the level of agreement between results from Gram's stain and bacterial culture when used to assess cloacal or fecal samples from psittacine birds, samples were taken from 21 clinically healthy Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis ) and tested by Gram's stain cytology and bacterial culture. Most bacteria (97.2%) identified by Gram's stain were gram positive. However, gram-negative organisms were identified in 7 of 21 (33.3%; 95% confidence interval: 13.3%-53.3%) birds. Escherichia coli was the only gram-negative organism identified on culture. Agreement between results of Gram's stain and culture was fair (weighted κ = 0.27). The results of this study suggest that Gram's stains and bacterial culture may need to be performed with a parallel testing strategy to limit the likelihood of misclassifying the microbial flora of psittacine patients.

Isolation and molecular identification of lactic acid bacteria and Bifidobacterium spp. from faeces of the blue-fronted Amazon parrot in Brazil

In Brazil, the blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) is a common pet. The faecal microbiota of these birds include a wide variety of bacterial species, the majority of which belong to the Gram-positive lactic acid bacteria (LAB) clade. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in the diversity and abundance of LAB and Bifidobacterium spp. in the cloacae between wild and captive birds and to select, identify and characterise LAB for consideration as a parrot probiotic. Cloacal swabs were collected from 26 wild and 26 captive birds. Bacterial DNA was extracted, and the 16S rRNA genes were amplified. The numbers of PCR-positive Enterococcus, Pediococcus, and Lactobacillus species isolated from wild and captive birds were significantly different (P<0.05). Enterococcus was the most frequently isolated genus, followed by Pediococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Bifidobacterium. Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus coryniformis, Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis and Bifidobacterium bifidum were the most frequently isolated species from all birds. This study increases our understanding of the faecal microbiota, and may help to improve the nutrition and habitat management of captive and wild parrots. The bacterial population identified in the faecal microbiota of clinically healthy wild and captive parrots can serve as a database to analyse variations in the gut microbiota of pathogen-infected parrots and to develop probiotics specific to these genera.

Cultivable bacterial microbiota of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus): a new reservoir of antimicrobial resistance?

The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) is an ecologically and economically important avian species. At the present time, little is known about the microbial communities associated with these birds. As the first step to create a quail microbiology knowledge base, the current study conducted an inventory of cultivable quail tracheal, crop, cecal, and cloacal microbiota and associated antimicrobial resistance using a combined bacteriology and DNA sequencing approach. A total of 414 morphologically unique bacterial colonies were selected from nonselective aerobic and anaerobic cultures, as well as selective and enrichment cultures. Analysis of the first 500-bp 16S rRNA gene sequences in conjunction with biochemical identifications revealed 190 non-redundant species-level taxonomic units, representing 160 known bacterial species and 30 novel species. The bacterial species were classified into 4 phyla, 14 orders, 37 families, and 59 or more genera. Firmicutes was the most commonly encountered phylum (57%) followed by Actinobacteria (24%), Proteobacteria (17%) and Bacteroidetes (0.02%). Extensive diversity in the species composition of quail microbiota was observed among individual birds and anatomical locations. Quail microbiota harbored several opportunistic pathogens, such as E. coli and Ps. aeruginosa, as well as human commensal organisms, including Neisseria species. Phenotypic characterization of selected bacterial species demonstrated a high prevalence of resistance to the following classes of antimicrobials: phenicol, macrolide, lincosamide, quinolone, and sulphate. Data from the current investigation warrant further investigation on the source, transmission, pathology, and control of antimicrobial resistance in wild quail populations.