COMPARISON OF FRESH AND FROZEN FECAL SAMPLES FOR DETECTION OF ENTERIC SALMONELLA FROM CAPTIVE INDIAN STAR TORTOISES (GEOCHELONE ELEGANS)

BURMESE ROOFED TURTLE (BATAGUR TRIVITTATA) DISEASE SCREENING IN MYANMAR

The Burmese roofed turtle (Batagur trivittata), a critically endangered freshwater turtle, is endemic to Myanmar. Once thought to be extinct, remnant wild populations were discovered in 2001 and limited captive individuals identified in pagoda ponds or confiscated from fishers in Myanmar. These and their offspring are maintained in five facilities in Myanmar and form the basis of a conservation program (habitat protection, captive breeding, nest protection, egg collection, head-starting, and release). Prerelease health screenings were performed in 2014 and 2018 at Yadanabon Zoological Gardens, a head-starting facility in Limpha Village, and Lawkanandar Wildlife Park. One hundred forty-three turtles were assessed (37 male, 50 female, 56 juveniles [too young to determine sex]; two females were assessed in both years), age range of 1 to 12 y (one unknown age adult founder), and body mass range of 0.111 to 32.72 kg. Health evaluations both years included physical examination and combined choanal/cloacal swab samples for polymerase chain reaction testing of the potential chelonian pathogens intranuclear coccidia, Mycoplasma, Herpesvirus, Ranavirus, and Adenovirus (not all tests performed each year). In 2018, cloacal swabs from 30 and 20 turtles at the Yadanabon Zoological Gardens and Lawkanandar Wildlife Park, respectively, were cultured for Salmonella. All turtles were assessed as healthy based on normal physical examination findings, and all had negative test results. Prerelease health screening, such as performed in this study, is an important component of release, reintroduction, and translocation projects to prevent introduction of novel pathogens into naïve wild populations.

PREVALENCE, INCIDENCE, AND IDENTIFICATION OF SALMONELLA ENTERICA FROM WILD AND CAPTIVE GRAND CAYMAN IGUANAS ( CYCLURA LEWISI)

From 2005 to 2017, a total of 334 fresh fecal samples was obtained from 236 captive and free-ranging Grand Cayman iguanas ( Cyclura lewisi) in a captive breeding and release program. One-hundred-sixteen samples were obtained from individual captive iguanas living in enclosures with natural substrate, 161 samples from captive iguanas living in elevated wire-bottom enclosures, and 57 samples from free-ranging wild iguanas. These samples were cultured to isolate subspecies of Salmonella enterica. as part of prerelease health evaluations, and to determine baseline health assessments of captive and wild populations of these iguanas. There was a 5.45% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14-15.12) prevalence of S. enterica in iguanas housed on natural substrate ( n = 51), 3.85% (CI: 1.42-8.19) in iguanas housed in elevated wire-bottom enclosures ( n = 157), and 6.06% (CI: 0.74-20.23) in wild free-ranging iguanas ( n = 38). These results demonstrate no significant difference ( P = 0.73) in S. enterica prevalence among these housing conditions. The incidence of S. enterica from 2005 to 2017 in the population sampled was 4.19% (CI 3.10-5.29). Ten different serotypes of S. enterica were isolated from 14 iguanas. Salmonella enterica ser. Saintpaul was the most frequent isolate. Annual S. enterica prevalence was calculated for iguanas housed in different enclosure types, for free-roaming wild iguanas, and for all cultured iguanas. The highest yearly prevalence was 23.08% (CI: 5.04-53.81) in iguanas tested in 2007 ( n = 21). No Salmonella enterica were cultured in 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2015. These results suggest that the shedding of S. enterica was not significantly different between housing types or between captive versus wild iguanas and therefore that release of captive iguanas did not significantly affect the health of the wild population or their exposure to S. enterica.

Salmonella infection and carriage in reptiles in a zoological collection

OBJECTIVE To identify important subspecies and serovars of Salmonella enterica in a captive reptile population and clinically relevant risk factors for and signs of illness in Salmonella-positive reptiles. DESIGN Retrospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS 11 crocodilians (4 samples), 78 snakes (91 samples), 59 lizards (57 samples), and 34 chelonians (23 samples) at the Bronx Zoo from 2000 through 2012. PROCEDURES Data pertaining to various types of biological samples obtained from reptiles with positive Salmonella culture results and the reptiles themselves were analyzed to determine period prevalence of and risk factors for various Salmonella-related outcomes. RESULTS Serovar distribution differences were identified for sample type, reptile phylogenetic family, and reptile origin and health. Salmonella enterica subsp enterica was the most common subspecies in Salmonella cultures (78/175 [45%]), identified across all reptilian taxa. Salmonella enterica subsp diarizonae was also common (42/175 [24%]) and was recovered almost exclusively from snakes (n = 33), many of which had been clinically ill (17). Clinically ill reptiles provided 37% (64) of Salmonella cultures. Factors associated with an increased risk of illness in reptiles with a positive culture result were carnivorous diet and prior confiscation. Snakes had a higher risk of illness than other reptile groups, whereas lizards had a lower risk. Bony changes, dermatitis, and anorexia were the most common clinical signs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE This study provided new information on Salmonella infection or carriage and associated clinical disease in reptiles. Associations identified between serovars or subspecies and reptile groups or clinical disease can guide management of Salmonella-positive captive reptiles.

MANAGEMENT OF OSTEOMYELITIS CAUSED BY SALMONELLA ENTERICA SUBSP. HOUTENAE IN A TAYLOR'S CANTIL (AGKISTRODON BILINEATUS TAYLORI) USING AMIKACIN DELIVERED VIA OSMOTIC PUMP

An adult female Taylor's cantil (Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori) presented with marked spinal and mandibular osteomyelitis that cultured positive for Salmonella enterica subsp. houtenae, serovar IV 43:z4,z32:-. Progression of osteomyelitis was arrested by treatment using amikacin (0.026 mg/kg per hour) delivered via subcutaneous osmotic pump for 10 mo, replacing the pump every 4 wk. No adverse effects on renal function were appreciated throughout the course of therapy. Amikacin therapy was discontinued after improvement with treatment, but 5 mo later, bony lesions worsened, and an additional abscess formed at the previous pump site. The animal's condition declined and euthanasia was elected. Postmortem examination confirmed marked osteomyelitis with Salmonella infection of same serovar as the initial biopsy. This report highlights the pathogenicity of the S. enterica subsp. houtenae serovar and the ability to deliver effective amikacin dosage via osmotic pump to arrest osteomyelitis due to salmonellosis in a venomous snake.