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White HE, Tucker AS, Fernandez V, Portela Miguez R, Hautier L, Herrel A, Urban DJ, Sears KE, Goswami A. Pedomorphosis in the ancestry of marsupial mammals. Curr Biol 2023:S0960-9822(23)00457-8. [PMID: 37119816 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Within mammals, different reproductive strategies (e.g., egg laying, live birth of extremely underdeveloped young, and live birth of well-developed young) have been linked to divergent evolutionary histories. How and when developmental variation across mammals arose is unclear. While egg laying is unquestionably considered the ancestral state for all mammals, many long-standing biases treat the extreme underdeveloped state of marsupial young as the ancestral state for therian mammals (clade including both marsupials and placentals), with the well-developed young of placentals often considered the derived mode of development. Here, we quantify mammalian cranial morphological development and estimate ancestral patterns of cranial shape development using geometric morphometric analysis of the largest comparative ontogenetic dataset of mammals to date (165 specimens, 22 species). We identify a conserved region of cranial morphospace for fetal specimens, after which cranial morphology diversified through ontogeny in a cone-shaped pattern. This cone-shaped pattern of development distinctively reflected the upper half of the developmental hourglass model. Moreover, cranial morphological variation was found to be significantly associated with the level of development (position on the altricial-precocial spectrum) exhibited at birth. Estimation of ancestral state allometry (size-related shape change) reconstructs marsupials as pedomorphic relative to the ancestral therian mammal. In contrast, the estimated allometries for the ancestral placental and ancestral therian were indistinguishable. Thus, from our results, we hypothesize that placental mammal cranial development most closely reflects that of the ancestral therian mammal, while marsupial cranial development represents a more derived mode of mammalian development, in stark contrast to many interpretations of mammalian evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E White
- Science Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's College London, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK; Division of Biosciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6DE, UK.
| | - Abigail S Tucker
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's College London, Great Maze Pond, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Vincent Fernandez
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 71 rue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | | | - Lionel Hautier
- Science Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, Montpellier 34095, France
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Département Adaptations du Vivant, 55 rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Daniel J Urban
- Institute of Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Karen E Sears
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Science Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; Division of Biosciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6DE, UK
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Abstract
Relationships between the complexity of the cranial sutures and the inferred ecology of dicynodont synapsids are explored. Simple complexity indices based on degree of sutural interdigitation were calculated for 70 anomodont species and indicate that the naso-frontal sutures of Cistecephalidae, a clade inferred to be dedicated fossors based on aspects of postcranial morphology, are substantially more complex than those of other dicynodonts. The elevated complexity of the naso-frontal suture in this clade is interpreted as being related to compressive forces sustained during burrowing, paralleling the condition in some other fossorial vertebrate groups (e.g., amphisbaenians). The most highly interdigitated sutures in the cistecephalid skull are those oriented transversely to its long axis, which would experience the greatest longitudinal stresses from contact with the substrate. Although it is uncertain to what degree cistecephalid burrowing was based on scratch vs. head-lift digging, it is argued that the head played an important role during locomotion in this group. Increased sutural complexity, rather than cranial fusion, as an adaptation to resisting compressive forces during burrowing may be related to indeterminate growth in dicynodonts.
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Le Verger K, Hautier L, Bardin J, Gerber S, Delsuc F, Billet G. Ontogenetic and static allometry in the skull and cranial units of nine-banded armadillos (Cingulata: Dasypodidae: Dasypus novemcinctus). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A large part of extant and past mammalian morphological diversity is related to variation in size through allometric effects. Previous studies suggested that craniofacial allometry is the dominant pattern underlying mammalian skull shape variation, but cranial allometries were rarely characterized within cranial units such as individual bones. Here, we used 3D geometric morphometric methods to study allometric patterns of the whole skull (global) and of cranial units (local) in a postnatal developmental series of nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus ssp.). Analyses were conducted at the ontogenetic and static levels, and for successive developmental stages. Our results support craniofacial allometry as the global pattern along with more local allometric trends, such as the relative posterior elongation of the infraorbital canal, the tooth row reduction on the maxillary, and the marked development of nuchal crests on the supraoccipital with increasing skull size. Our study also reports allometric proportions of shape variation varying substantially among cranial units and across ontogenetic stages. The multi-scale approach advocated here allowed unveiling previously unnoticed allometric variations, indicating an untapped complexity of cranial allometric patterns to further explain mammalian morphological evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kévin Le Verger
- Museum national d’Histoire naturelle, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie – Paris, UMR 7207 CR2P MNHN/CNRS/UPMC, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Lionel Hautier
- Institut des Sciences de l’Evolution, Université de Montpellier, UMR 5554 ISEM CNRS/IRD/EPHE, Montpellier cedex, France
- Natural History Museum of London, Department of Life Sciences, Mammal Section, London, UK
| | - Jérémie Bardin
- Museum national d’Histoire naturelle, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie – Paris, UMR 7207 CR2P MNHN/CNRS/UPMC, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Sylvain Gerber
- Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 ISYEB MNHN/CNRS/UPMC/EPHE, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Delsuc
- Institut des Sciences de l’Evolution, Université de Montpellier, UMR 5554 ISEM CNRS/IRD/EPHE, Montpellier cedex, France
| | - Guillaume Billet
- Museum national d’Histoire naturelle, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie – Paris, UMR 7207 CR2P MNHN/CNRS/UPMC, Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
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Postnatal development of the largest subterranean mammal (Bathyergus suillus): Morphology, osteogenesis, and modularity of the appendicular skeleton. Dev Dyn 2019; 248:1101-1128. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
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Percival CJ, Green R, Roseman CC, Gatti DM, Morgan JL, Murray SA, Donahue LR, Mayeux JM, Pollard KM, Hua K, Pomp D, Marcucio R, Hallgrímsson B. Developmental constraint through negative pleiotropy in the zygomatic arch. EvoDevo 2018; 9:3. [PMID: 29423138 PMCID: PMC5787316 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-018-0092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous analysis suggested that the relative contribution of individual bones to regional skull lengths differ between inbred mouse strains. If the negative correlation of adjacent bone lengths is associated with genetic variation in a heterogeneous population, it would be an example of negative pleiotropy, which occurs when a genetic factor leads to opposite effects in two phenotypes. Confirming negative pleiotropy and determining its basis may reveal important information about the maintenance of overall skull integration and developmental constraint on skull morphology. RESULTS We identified negative correlations between the lengths of the frontal and parietal bones in the midline cranial vault as well as the zygomatic bone and zygomatic process of the maxilla, which contribute to the zygomatic arch. Through gene association mapping of a large heterogeneous population of Diversity Outbred (DO) mice, we identified a quantitative trait locus on chromosome 17 driving the antagonistic contribution of these two zygomatic arch bones to total zygomatic arch length. Candidate genes in this region were identified and real-time PCR of the maxillary processes of DO founder strain embryos indicated differences in the RNA expression levels for two of the candidate genes, Camkmt and Six2. CONCLUSIONS A genomic region underlying negative pleiotropy of two zygomatic arch bones was identified, which provides a mechanism for antagonism in component bone lengths while constraining overall zygomatic arch length. This type of mechanism may have led to variation in the contribution of individual bones to the zygomatic arch noted across mammals. Given that similar genetic and developmental mechanisms may underlie negative correlations in other parts of the skull, these results provide an important step toward understanding the developmental basis of evolutionary variation and constraint in skull morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rebecca Green
- Alberta Children’s Hospital Institute for Child and Maternal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
- The McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - Charles C. Roseman
- Program in Ecology Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Jessica M. Mayeux
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - K. Michael Pollard
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Kunjie Hua
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina Medical School, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Daniel Pomp
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina Medical School, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Ralph Marcucio
- The Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UCSF School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - Benedikt Hallgrímsson
- Alberta Children’s Hospital Institute for Child and Maternal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
- The McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
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Segura V. A three-dimensional skull ontogeny in the bobcat (Lynx rufus) (Carnivora: Felidae): a comparison with other carnivores. CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The maturation of mammalian carnivores from a lactating juvenile to a predatory adult requires a suite of changes in both morphology and behaviour. Bobcats (Lynx rufus (Schreber, 1777)) are medium-sized cats with well-developed skulls to process large prey that can exceed their body mass. An integrated view of the skull ontogeny in the bobcat was developed to detect the relationship between shape, size (on the basis of three-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis), and life history. Dietary changes from juvenile to adults were taken into account and compared with other carnivores. Newborns were different from the remaining age stages in the behavioral and morphological characters examined, which allows us to relate them to the terminal morphology reached during the prenatal period. All findings were related to the reinforcement of the skull and the enhancement of predatory skills in adult bobcats. The final cranial shape is reached in A2 age class, after 2 years of age, and once sexual maturity has been reached. This is a pattern not followed for the rest of carnivores previously studied, which might be related to the capacity of subduing prey that exceed them in size, a behavior not common in felids of the body size of bobcats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Segura
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina, Unidad Ejecutora Lillo (UEL)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina, Unidad Ejecutora Lillo (UEL)
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Goswami A, Foley L, Weisbecker V. Patterns and implications of extensive heterochrony in carnivoran cranial suture closure. J Evol Biol 2013; 26:1294-306. [PMID: 23530892 PMCID: PMC4166780 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Heterochronic changes in the rate or timing of development underpin many evolutionary transformations. In particular, the onset and rate of bone development have been the focus of many studies across large clades. In contrast, the termination of bone growth, as estimated by suture closure, has been studied far less frequently, although a few recent studies have shown this to represent a variable, although poorly understood, aspect of developmental evolution. Here, we examine suture closure patterns across 25 species of carnivoran mammals, ranging from social-insectivores to hypercarnivores, to assess variation in suture closure across taxa, identify heterochronic shifts in a phylogenetic framework and elucidate the relationship between suture closure timing and ecology. Our results show that heterochronic shifts in suture closure are widespread across Carnivora, with several shifts identified for most major clades. Carnivorans differ from patterns identified for other mammalian clades in showing high variability of palatal suture closure, no correlation between size and level of suture closure, and little phylogenetic signal outside of musteloids. Results further suggest a strong influence of feeding ecology on suture closure pattern. Most of the species with high numbers of heterochronic shifts, such as the walrus and the aardwolf, feed on invertebrates, and these taxa also showed high frequency of closure of the mandibular symphysis, a state that is relatively rare among mammals. Overall, caniforms displayed more heterochronic shifts than feliforms, suggesting that evolutionary changes in suture closure may reflect the lower diversity of cranial morphology in feliforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Goswami
- Department of Genetics, Evolution & Environment, University College London, London, UK.
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Hautier L, Bennett NC, Viljoen H, Howard L, Milinkovitch MC, Tzika AC, Goswami A, Asher RJ. PATTERNS OF OSSIFICATION IN SOUTHERN VERSUS NORTHERN PLACENTAL MAMMALS. Evolution 2013; 67:1994-2010. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Hautier
- Department of Zoology; University of Cambridge; Downing St. Cambridge CB2 3EJ United Kingdom
| | - Nigel C. Bennett
- Department of Zoology and Entomology; University of Pretoria; Pretoria 0002 South Africa
| | - Hermien Viljoen
- Department of Zoology and Entomology; University of Pretoria; Pretoria 0002 South Africa
| | - Lauren Howard
- Science Facilities Department; British Museum of Natural History; Cromwell Road London SW7 5BD United Kingdom
| | - Michel C. Milinkovitch
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution; Department of Genetics & Evolution; Sciences III Building; 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet 1211 Geneva Switzerland
| | - Athanasia C. Tzika
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution; Department of Genetics & Evolution; Sciences III Building; 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet 1211 Geneva Switzerland
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment and Department of Earth Sciences; University College London; Wolfson House to Darwin Building; Gower Street London WC1E 6BT United Kingdom
| | - Robert J. Asher
- Department of Zoology; University of Cambridge; Downing St. Cambridge CB2 3EJ United Kingdom
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Patterns of skull development in anurans: size and shape relationship during postmetamorphic cranial ontogeny in five species of the Leptodactylus fuscus Group (Anura: Leptodactylidae). ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-012-0164-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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10
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Koyabu D, Endo H, Mitgutsch C, Suwa G, Catania KC, Zollikofer CPE, Oda SI, Koyasu K, Ando M, Sánchez-Villagra MR. Heterochrony and developmental modularity of cranial osteogenesis in lipotyphlan mammals. EvoDevo 2011; 2:21. [PMID: 22040374 PMCID: PMC3247175 DOI: 10.1186/2041-9139-2-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Here we provide the most comprehensive study to date on the cranial ossification sequence in Lipotyphla, the group which includes shrews, moles and hedgehogs. This unique group, which encapsulates diverse ecological modes, such as terrestrial, subterranean, and aquatic lifestyles, is used to examine the evolutionary lability of cranial osteogenesis and to investigate the modularity of development. RESULTS An acceleration of developmental timing of the vomeronasal complex has occurred in the common ancestor of moles. However, ossification of the nasal bone has shifted late in the more terrestrial shrew mole. Among the lipotyphlans, sequence heterochrony shows no significant association with modules derived from developmental origins (that is, neural crest cells vs. mesoderm derived parts) or with those derived from ossification modes (that is, dermal vs. endochondral ossification). CONCLUSIONS The drastic acceleration of vomeronasal development in moles is most likely coupled with the increased importance of the rostrum for digging and its use as a specialized tactile surface, both fossorial adaptations. The late development of the nasal in shrew moles, a condition also displayed by hedgehogs and shrews, is suggested to be the result of an ecological reversal to terrestrial lifestyle and reduced functional importance of the rostrum. As an overall pattern in lipotyphlans, our results reject the hypothesis that ossification sequence heterochrony occurs in modular fashion when considering the developmental patterns of the skull. We suggest that shifts in the cranial ossification sequence are not evolutionarily constrained by developmental origins or mode of ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Koyabu
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, CH-8006 Zürich, Switzerland
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, 113-0033 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideki Endo
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, 113-0033 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Christian Mitgutsch
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, CH-8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gen Suwa
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, 113-0033 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenneth C Catania
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, VU Station B, Box 35-1634, Nashville, USA
| | - Christoph PE Zollikofer
- Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sen-ichi Oda
- Department of Zoology, Okayama University of Science, Ridaichou, Kita-ku, 700-0005 Okayama, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Koyasu
- The Second Department of Anatomy, School of Dentistry, Aichi-Gakuin University, Kusumotochou 1-100, 464-8650 Nagoya, Japan
| | - Motokazu Ando
- Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Funako 1737, 243-0034 Atsugi, Japan
| | - Marcelo R Sánchez-Villagra
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, CH-8006 Zürich, Switzerland
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Hautier L, Weisbecker V, Goswami A, Knight F, Kardjilov N, Asher RJ. Skeletal ossification and sequence heterochrony in xenarthran evolution. Evol Dev 2011; 13:460-76. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-142x.2011.00503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Hautier
- Department of Zoology; University of Cambridge; Downing St.; Cambridge CB2 3EJ; UK
| | - Vera Weisbecker
- Department of Earth Sciences; University of Cambridge; Downing St.; Cambridge; CB2 3EQ; UK
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Genetics; Evolution, and Environment and Department of Earth Sciences; University College London; Wolfson House 408, 4 Stephenson Way; London; NW1 2HE; UK
| | - Frank Knight
- Division of Sciences and Mathematics; 104 Smith-Broyles Science Center, 415 N. College Avenue; Clarksville; AR; 72830; USA
| | - Nikolay Kardjilov
- Helmholtz Centre Berlin for Materials and Energy Institute of Applied Materials; Hahn-Meitner-Platz; 14109; Berlin; Germany
| | - Robert J. Asher
- Department of Zoology; University of Cambridge; Downing St.; Cambridge CB2 3EJ; UK
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Wilson LAB. Comparison of prenatal and postnatal ontogeny: cranial allometry in the African striped mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio). J Mammal 2011. [DOI: 10.1644/10-mamm-a-209.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Giere P, Möller L, Hilger A, Paulke A, Riesemeier H, Kuehbacher M. Modern and classic approaches towards revealing the orbital mosaic in the common shrew Sorex araneus Linnaeus, 1758 (Soricidae, Lipotyphla, Mammalia). ZOOSYST EVOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/zoos.201000016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Asher RJ, Geisler JH, Sánchez-Villagra MR. Morphology, paleontology, and placental mammal phylogeny. Syst Biol 2008; 57:311-7. [PMID: 18432551 DOI: 10.1080/10635150802033022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Asher
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, UK
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Prochel J, Goswami A, David Carmona F, Jimenéz R. Ossification sequence in the mole Talpa occidentalis (Eulipotyphla, Talpidae) and comparison with other mammals. Mamm Biol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mambio.2007.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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