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Yohe LR, Krell NT. An updated synthesis of and outstanding questions in the olfactory and vomeronasal systems in bats: Genetics asks questions only anatomy can answer. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:2765-2780. [PMID: 37523493 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The extensive diversity observed in bat nasal chemosensory systems has been well-documented at the histological level. Understanding how this diversity evolved and developing hypotheses as to why particular patterns exist require a phylogenetic perspective, which was first outlined in the work of anatomist Kunwar Bhatnagar. With the onset of genetics and genomics, it might be assumed that the puzzling patterns observed in the morphological data have been clarified. However, there is still a widespread mismatch of genetic and morphological correlations among bat chemosensory systems. Novel genomic evidence has set up new avenues to explore that demand more evidence from anatomical structures. Here, we outline the progress that has been made in both morphological and molecular studies on the olfactory and vomeronasal systems in bats since the work of Bhatnagar. Genomic data of olfactory and vomeronasal receptors demonstrate the strong need for further morphological sampling, with a particular focus on receiving brain regions, glands, and ducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
- North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nicholas T Krell
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
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2
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Mouginot M, Cheng L, Wilson ML, Feldblum JT, Städele V, Wroblewski EE, Vigilant L, Hahn BH, Li Y, Gilby IC, Pusey AE, Surbeck M. Reproductive inequality among males in the genus Pan. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220301. [PMID: 37381849 PMCID: PMC10291431 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Reproductive inequality, or reproductive skew, drives natural selection, but has been difficult to assess, particularly for males in species with promiscuous mating and slow life histories, such as bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Although bonobos are often portrayed as more egalitarian than chimpanzees, genetic studies have found high male reproductive skew in bonobos. Here, we discuss mechanisms likely to affect male reproductive skew in Pan, then re-examine skew patterns using paternity data from published work and new data from the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, Democratic Republic of Congo and Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Using the multinomial index (M), we found considerable overlap in skew between the species, but the highest skew occurred among bonobos. Additionally, for two of three bonobo communities, but no chimpanzee communities, the highest ranking male had greater siring success than predicted by priority-of-access. Thus, an expanded dataset covering a broader demographic range confirms that bonobos have high male reproductive skew. Detailed comparison of data from Pan highlights that reproductive skew models should consider male-male dynamics including the effect of between-group competition on incentives for reproductive concessions, but also female grouping patterns and factors related to male-female dynamics including the expression of female choice. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolutionary ecology of inequality'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Mouginot
- Department of Anthropology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Leveda Cheng
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Michael L. Wilson
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Joseph T. Feldblum
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Veronika Städele
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, and Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Emily E. Wroblewski
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Linda Vigilant
- Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 04103, Germany
| | - Beatrice H. Hahn
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yingying Li
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ian C. Gilby
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, and Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Anne E. Pusey
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Martin Surbeck
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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Muñoz‐Romo M, Page RA, Kunz TH. Redefining the study of sexual dimorphism in bats: following the odour trail. Mamm Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Muñoz‐Romo
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado 0843‐03092 Balboa, Ancón Panamá
- Laboratorio de Zoología Aplicada Departamento de Biología Facultad de Ciencias Universidad de Los Andes Mérida5101Venezuela
| | - Rachel A. Page
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado 0843‐03092 Balboa, Ancón Panamá
| | - Thomas H. Kunz
- Center for Ecology and Conservation Biology Department of Biology Boston University Boston02215USA
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4
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Male condition and group heterogeneity predict extra-group paternity in a Neotropical bat. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02919-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Flores V, Carter GG, Halczok TK, Kerth G, Page RA. Social structure and relatedness in the fringe-lipped bat ( Trachops cirrhosus). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192256. [PMID: 32431896 PMCID: PMC7211832 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
General insights into the causes and effects of social structure can be gained from comparative analyses across socially and ecologically diverse taxa, such as bats, but long-term data are lacking for most species. In the neotropical fringe-lipped bat, Trachops cirrhosus, social transmission of foraging behaviour is clearly demonstrated in captivity, yet its social structure in the wild remains unclear. Here, we used microsatellite-based estimates of relatedness and records of 157 individually marked adults from 106 roost captures over 6 years, to infer whether male and female T. cirrhosus have preferred co-roosting associations and whether such associations were influenced by relatedness. Using a null model that controlled for year and roosting location, we found that both male and female T. cirrhosus have preferred roosting partners, but that only females demonstrate kin-biased association. Most roosting groups (67%) contained multiple females with one or two reproductive males. Relatedness patterns and recapture records corroborate genetic evidence for female philopatry and male dispersal. Our study adds to growing evidence that many bats demonstrate preferred roosting associations, which has the potential to influence social information transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Flores
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panamá
| | - Gerald G. Carter
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panamá
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Tanja K. Halczok
- Greifswald University, Zoological Institute and Museum, Soldmannstr. 14, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gerald Kerth
- Greifswald University, Zoological Institute and Museum, Soldmannstr. 14, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Rachel A. Page
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panamá
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Lattenkamp EZ, Shields SM, Schutte M, Richter J, Linnenschmidt M, Vernes SC, Wiegrebe L. The Vocal Repertoire of Pale Spear-Nosed Bats in a Social Roosting Context. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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7
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Yohe LR, Hoffmann S, Curtis A. Vomeronasal and Olfactory Structures in Bats Revealed by DiceCT Clarify Genetic Evidence of Function. Front Neuroanat 2018; 12:32. [PMID: 29867373 PMCID: PMC5953337 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The degree to which molecular and morphological loss of function occurs synchronously during the vestigialization of traits is not well understood. The mammalian vomeronasal system, a sense critical for mediating many social and reproductive behaviors, is highly conserved across mammals. New World Leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae) are under strong selection to maintain a functional vomeronasal system such that most phyllostomids possess a distinct vomeronasal organ and an intact TRPC2, a gene encoding a protein primarily involved in vomeronasal sensory neuron signal transduction. Recent genetic evidence, however, shows that TRPC2 is a pseudogene in some Caribbean nectarivorous phyllostomids. The loss-of-function mutations suggest the sensory neural tissue of the vomeronasal organ is absent in these species despite strong selection on this gene in its mainland relatives, but the anatomy was unknown in most Caribbean nectarivorous phyllostomids until this study. We used diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) to test whether the vomeronasal and main olfactory anatomy of several phyllostomid species matched genetic evidence of function, providing insight into whether loss of a structure is linked to pseudogenization of a molecular component of the system. The vomeronasal organ is indeed rudimentary or absent in species with a disrupted TRPC2 gene. Caribbean nectar-feeders also exhibit derived olfactory turbinal morphology and a large olfactory recess that differs from closely related bats that have an intact vomeronasal organ, which may hint that the main olfactory system may compensate for loss. We emphasize non-invasive diceCT is capable of detecting the vomeronasal organ, providing a feasible approach for quantifying mammalian chemosensory anatomy across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - Simone Hoffmann
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY, United States
| | - Abigail Curtis
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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Yohe LR, Dávalos LM. Strength of selection on the Trpc2 gene predicts accessory olfactory bulb form in bat vomeronasal evolution. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Liliana M Dávalos
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
- Consortium for Inter-Disciplinary Environmental Research, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
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9
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Flores V, Page RA. Novel odorous crust on the forearm of reproductive male fringe-lipped bats (Trachops cirrhosus). J Mammal 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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10
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The origins and diversity of bat songs. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2016; 202:535-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-016-1105-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Individual, social, and sexual niche traits affect copulation success in a polygynandrous mating system. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2112-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Buchalski MR, Chaverri G, Vonhof MJ. When genes move farther than offspring: gene flow by male gamete dispersal in the highly philopatric bat species Thyroptera tricolor. Mol Ecol 2013; 23:464-80. [PMID: 24237721 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
For species characterized by philopatry of both sexes, mate selection represents an important behaviour for inbreeding avoidance, yet the implications for gene flow are rarely quantified. Here, we present evidence of male gamete-mediated gene flow resulting from extra-group mating in Spix's disc-winged bat, Thyroptera tricolor, a species which demonstrates all-offspring philopatry. We used microsatellite and capture-recapture data to characterize social group structure and the distribution of mated pairs at two sites in southwestern Costa Rica over four breeding seasons. Relatedness and genetic spatial autocorrelation analyses indicated strong kinship within groups and over short distances (<50 m), resulting from matrilineal group structure and small roosting home ranges (~0.2 ha). Despite high relatedness among-group members, observed inbreeding coefficients were low (FIS = 0.010 and 0.037). Parentage analysis indicated mothers and offspring belonged to the same social group, while fathers belonged to different groups, separated by large distances (~500 m) when compared to roosting home ranges. Simulated random mating indicated mate choice was not based on intermediate levels of relatedness, and mated pairs were less related than adults within social groups on average. Isolation-by-distance (IBD) models of genetic neighbourhood area based on father-offspring distances provided direct estimates of mean gamete dispersal distances (r^) > 10 roosting home range equivalents. Indirect estimates based on genetic distance provided even larger estimates of r^, indicating direct estimates were biased low. These results suggest extra-group mating reduces the incidence of inbreeding in T. tricolor, and male gamete dispersal facilitates gene flow in lieu of natal dispersal of young.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Buchalski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA.,Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - G Chaverri
- Universidad de Costa Rica, Golfito, 60701, Costa Rica
| | - M J Vonhof
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- C. A. Toth
- School of Biological Sciences University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
| | - S. Parsons
- School of Biological Sciences University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
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Garg KM, Chattopadhyay B, Doss D PS, A K VK, Kandula S, Ramakrishnan U. Promiscuous mating in the harem-roosting fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx. Mol Ecol 2012; 21:4093-105. [PMID: 22725709 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Observations on mating behaviours and strategies guide our understanding of mating systems and variance in reproductive success. However, the presence of cryptic strategies often results in situations where social mating system is not reflective of genetic mating system. We present such a study of the genetic mating system of a harem-forming bat Cynopterus sphinx where harems may not be true indicators of male reproductive success. This temporal study using data from six seasons on paternity reveals that social harem assemblages do not play a role in the mating system, and variance in male reproductive success is lower than expected assuming polygynous mating. Further, simulations reveal that the genetic mating system is statistically indistinguishable from promiscuity. Our results are in contrast to an earlier study that demonstrated high variance in male reproductive success. Although an outcome of behavioural mating patterns, standardized variance in male reproductive success (I(m)) affects the opportunity for sexual selection. To gain a better understanding of the evolutionary implications of promiscuity for mammals in general, we compared our estimates of I(m) and total opportunity for sexual selection (I(m) /I(f), where I(f) is standardized variance in female reproductive success) with those of other known promiscuous species. We observed a broad range of I(m) /I(f) values across known promiscuous species, indicating our poor understanding of the evolutionary implications of promiscuous mating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kritika M Garg
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR, GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 56065, India.
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Hua P, Zhang L, Zhu G, Jones G, Zhang S, Rossiter SJ. Hierarchical polygyny in multiparous lesser flat-headed bats. Mol Ecol 2011; 20:3669-80. [PMID: 21824210 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05192.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
How males gain access to mates and the potential for female choice will determine whether polygyny can operate at several levels, from within litters and groups to the wider population. Female lesser flat-headed bats (Tylonycteris pachypus) form maternity groups in bamboo stems. Unusually for bats, they are multiparous, providing the opportunity to test whether multi-level polygyny differs among males depending on whether they roost with females, with males or are solitary. We genotyped 662 individuals from 54 internodes and analysed parentage of 165 litters. Our results revealed 170 sets of paternal twins/triplets, of which 96 were full-sibs and 74 were half-sibs. We found that males captured roosting with females typically sired more offspring overall than did other males and also showed a greater tendency to monopolize paternity within both litters and roosting groups. In comparison, males that sired fewer full-sibs were assigned more maternal half-sibs. These latter individuals, which included solitary males and those from all-male groups, might gain copulations either via roaming with furtive mating or during visits by females. Indeed, female lesser flat-headed bats store sperm, so could benefit from multiple mating to reduce genetic incompatibilities. At the same time, however, we found no evidence of outbreeding. Finally, relatedness and mtDNA analyses revealed that polygyny also operated within matrilineal kin, suggesting a system that might promote social cohesiveness. Future studies of individual movements will help to determine the extent to which mixed paternities in litters, matrilines and groups are driven by male or female behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panyu Hua
- Institute of Molecular Ecology and Evolution, Institutes of Advanced Inter-disciplinary Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
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Dittmar K, Morse S, Gruwell M, Mayberry J, DiBlasi E. Spatial and temporal complexities of reproductive behavior and sex ratios: a case from parasitic insects. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19438. [PMID: 21572996 PMCID: PMC3091855 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sex ratios are important empirical data in predicting sex allocation strategy and selection in populations. Therefore, they should be sampled at crucial developmental steps before and after parental investment. In parasites with free-living (off-host) developmental stages the timing and method of sampling is not trivial, because ecological niches are frequently poorly known. Consequently, information is scarce for sex ratios of these parasites between conception and sexual maturity. Often, only data from adult parasites are available, which usually were collected from the parasite's hosts. Generally, these ratios are assumed to represent operational sex ratios. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We here report three years of empirical data on population sex differentials from a bat ectoparasite (Trichobius frequens) with off-host developmental stages. At emergence these parasites exhibit a significant and seasonally stable female biased sex ratio. This bias is lost in the adult population on the roosting host, which shows sex ratios at equality. This is best explained by a behaviorally driven, sex-dependent mortality differential. Because consistently only subsets of females are available to mate, the operational sex ratio in the population is likely male biased. Host capture experiments throughout the day show a statistically significant, but temporary male excess in bat flies on foraging bats. This phenomenon is partly driven by the diurnal rhythms of female larviposition, and partly due to parasites remaining in the bat roost during foraging. Because most previous research in bat flies is based only on foraging bats, female contributions to physical sex ratios have been underestimated. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE Our results highlight the importance of detailed natural history observations, and emphasize that ignoring the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of reproduction in any organism will lead to significant empirical sampling errors of sex ratios, and may obscure operational sex ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Dittmar
- State University of New York at Buffalo, Department of Biological Sciences and Graduate Program of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Buffalo, New York, United States of America.
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Exploring demographic, physical, and historical explanations for the genetic structure of two lineages of Greater Antillean bats. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17704. [PMID: 21445291 PMCID: PMC3061861 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Observed patterns of genetic structure result from the interactions of demographic, physical, and historical influences on gene flow. The particular strength of various factors in governing gene flow, however, may differ between species in biologically relevant ways. We investigated the role of demographic factors (population size and sex-biased dispersal) and physical features (geographic distance, island size and climatological winds) on patterns of genetic structure and gene flow for two lineages of Greater Antillean bats. We used microsatellite genetic data to estimate demographic characteristics, infer population genetic structure, and estimate gene flow among island populations of Erophylla sezekorni/E. bombifrons and Macrotus waterhousii (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae). Using a landscape genetics approach, we asked if geographic distance, island size, or climatological winds mediate historical gene flow in this system. Samples from 13 islands spanning Erophylla's range clustered into five genetically distinct populations. Samples of M. waterhousii from eight islands represented eight genetically distinct populations. While we found evidence that a majority of historical gene flow between genetic populations was asymmetric for both lineages, we were not able to entirely rule out incomplete lineage sorting in generating this pattern. We found no evidence of contemporary gene flow except between two genetic populations of Erophylla. Both lineages exhibited significant isolation by geographic distance. Patterns of genetic structure and gene flow, however, were not explained by differences in relative effective population sizes, island area, sex-biased dispersal (tested only for Erophylla), or surface-level climatological winds. Gene flow among islands appears to be highly restricted, particularly for M. waterhousii, and we suggest that this species deserves increased taxonomic attention and conservation concern.
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