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Chew A, West M, Berger L, Brannelly LA. The impacts of water quality on the amphibian chytrid fungal pathogen: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2024; 16:e13274. [PMID: 38775382 PMCID: PMC11110485 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.13274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
The pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has caused declines of amphibians worldwide. Yet our understanding of how water quality influences fungal pathogenicity is limited. Here, we reviewed experimental studies on the effect of water quality on this pathogen to determine which parameters impacted disease dynamics consistently. The strongest evidence for protective effects is salinity which shows strong antifungal properties in hosts at natural levels. Although many fungicides had detrimental effects on the fungal pathogen in vitro, their impact on the host is variable and they can worsen infection outcomes. However, one fungicide, epoxiconazole, reduced disease effects experimentally and likely in the field. While heavy metals are frequently studied, there is weak evidence that they influence infection outcomes. Nitrogen and phosphorous do not appear to impact pathogen growth or infection in the amphibian host. The effects of other chemicals, like pesticides and disinfectants on infection were mostly unclear with mixed results or lacking an in vivo component. Our study shows that water chemistry does impact disease dynamics, but the effects of specific parameters require more investigation. Improving our understanding of how water chemistry influences disease dynamics will help predict the impact of chytridiomycosis, especially in amphibian populations affected by land use changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeline Chew
- School of BiosciencesThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Matt West
- School of BiosciencesThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Lee Berger
- Melbourne Veterinary SchoolThe University of MelbourneWerribeeVictoriaAustralia
| | - Laura A. Brannelly
- Melbourne Veterinary SchoolThe University of MelbourneWerribeeVictoriaAustralia
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2
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Barragan EM, Hoskins TD, Allmon EB, McQuigg JL, Hamilton MT, Christian EN, Coogan GSM, Searle CL, Choi YJ, Lee LS, Hoverman JT, Sepúlveda MS. Toxicities of Legacy and Current-Use PFAS in an Anuran: Do Larval Exposures Influence Responses to a Terrestrial Pathogen Challenge? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:19180-19189. [PMID: 37962853 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c03191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Legacy polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) [perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)] are being replaced by various other fluorinated compounds, such as hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (GenX). These alternatives are thought to be less bioaccumulative and, therefore, less toxic than legacy PFAS. Contaminant exposures occur concurrently with exposure to natural stressors, including the fungal pathogen Batrachocytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Despite evidence that other pollutants can increase the adverse effects of Bd on anurans, no studies have examined the interactive effects of Bd and PFAS. This study tested the growth and developmental effects of PFOS, PFOA, and GenX on gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) tadpoles, followed by a Bd challenge after metamorphosis. Despite PFAS exposure only occurring during the larval stage, carry-over effects on growth were observed post metamorphosis. Further, PFAS interacted with Bd exposure to influence growth; Bd-exposed animals had significantly shorter SVL [snout-vent length (mm)] with significantly increased body condition, among other time-dependent effects. Our data suggest that larval exposure to PFAS can continue to impact growth in the juvenile stage after exposure has ended. Contrary to predictions, GenX affected terrestrial performance more consistently than its legacy congener, PFOA. Given the role of Bd in amphibian declines, further investigation of interactions of PFAS with Bd and other environmentally relevant pathogens is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn M Barragan
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Tyler D Hoskins
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Elizabeth B Allmon
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jessica L McQuigg
- Department of Biology, Drew University, Madison, New Jersey 07940, United States
| | - Matthew T Hamilton
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Erin N Christian
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Grace S M Coogan
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Catherine L Searle
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Youn Jeong Choi
- Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Linda S Lee
- Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jason T Hoverman
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Maria S Sepúlveda
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Sustainability Research Center and PhD in Conservation Medicine, Life Sciences Faculty, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 7550196, Chile
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Paetow LJ, Cue RI, Pauli BD, Marcogliese DJ. Effects of Herbicides and the Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on the growth, development and survival of Larval American Toads (Anaxyrus americanus). ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 259:115021. [PMID: 37216860 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides and pathogens adversely affect amphibian health, but their interactive effects are not well known. We assessed independent and combined effects of two agricultural herbicides and the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) on the growth, development and survival of larval American toads (Anaxyrus americanus). Wild-caught tadpoles were exposed to four concentrations of atrazine (0.18, 1.8, 18.0, 180 μg/L) or glyphosate (7, 70, 700, 7000 µg a.e./L), respectively contained in Aatrex® Liquid 480 (Syngenta) or Vision® Silviculture Herbicide (Monsanto) for 14 days, followed by two doses of Bd. At day 14, atrazine had not affected survival, but it non-monotonically affected growth. Exposure to the highest concentration of glyphosate caused 100% mortality within 4 days, while lower doses had an increasing monotonic effect on growth. At day 65, tadpole survival was unaffected by atrazine and the lower doses of glyphosate. Neither herbicide demonstrated an interaction effect with Bd on survival, but exposure to Bd increased survival among both herbicide-exposed and herbicide-control tadpoles. At day 60, tadpoles exposed to the highest concentration of atrazine remained smaller than controls, indicating longer-term effects of atrazine on growth, but effects of glyphosate on growth disappeared. Growth was unaffected by any herbicide-fungal interaction but was positively affected by exposure to Bd following exposure to atrazine. Atrazine exhibited a slowing and non-monotonic effect on Gosner developmental stage, while exposure to Bd tended to speed up development and act antagonistically toward the observed effect of atrazine. Overall, atrazine, glyphosate and Bd all showed a potential to modulate larval toad growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda J Paetow
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W, Montreal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Roger I Cue
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Rd., Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Bruce D Pauli
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, National Wildlife Research Centre, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - David J Marcogliese
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, Science and Technology Branch, St. Lawrence Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 105 McGill, 7th Floor, Montreal, Quebec H2Y 2E7, Canada
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López-Valcárcel ME, Del Arco A, Parra G. Sublethal exposure to agrochemicals impairs zooplankton ability to face future global change challenges. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 873:162020. [PMID: 36773907 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Intensive agriculture is characterized by the application of multiple stressors that damage aquatic systems. Currently, ecotoxicological evaluations are considered insufficient to understand the environmental risks of stressor mixtures and their consequences in ecosystems. In addition, future global change scenarios could alter the predicted effects of agrochemicals in aquatic systems based on single exposures, making it necessary to consider the history of environmental disturbances that may result in vulnerability to subsequent environmental changes. The objectives of this study were to induce disturbance histories by exposure to sublethal glyphosate concentrations in microcosms and to assess whether this disturbance results in vulnerable populations using Daphnia magna as the target species. Populations were considered vulnerable if their sensitivity to new stressors (inanition, temperature and salinity) was higher than that of undisturbed populations. To induce disturbance history, microcosm aquatic communities (two cladocerans and one microalgae) were exposed to two glyphosate sublethal concentrations (below the No Observed Effect Concentration, NOEC values for D. magna, 0.1 and 1 mg L-1) in microcosms under controlled conditions in a culture chamber for 48 days. After this period, no significant differences were observed with respect to the control microcosms in the selected parameters (cladoceran abundance, microalgae cell abundance, microalgae colony formation, pH and dissolved oxygen). To test vulnerability, our target D. magna populations, which were previously exposed to different glyphosate treatments, were subjected to inanition, elevated temperature and salinity. Our results showed that D. magna populations with disturbance history performed worse in all the scenarios compared to the populations from undisturbed conditions. These results underscore the need to study how environmental disturbance history influences population responses to new and future stressors. Moreover, our findings raise concern regarding the sublethal effects of pesticides on aquatic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Eugenia López-Valcárcel
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Universidad de Jaén, Campus de Las Lagunillas S/n, E-23071 Jaén, Spain.
| | - Ana Del Arco
- Limnological Institute, University of Konstanz, Mainaustraße 252, 78464 Konstanz, Egg, Germany.
| | - Gema Parra
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Universidad de Jaén, Campus de Las Lagunillas S/n, E-23071 Jaén, Spain.
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McQuigg JL, Kissner K, Boone MD. Exposure to Amphibian Chytrid Fungus Alters Terrestrial Growth and Feeding Rate in Metamorphic Anurans. J HERPETOL 2023. [DOI: 10.1670/21-048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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6
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Wu NC. Pathogen load predicts host functional disruption: A meta‐analysis of an amphibian fungal panzootic. Funct Ecol 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.14245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C. Wu
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment Western Sydney University Richmond New South Wales Australia
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7
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Delayed Effects of Nutrients in the Larval Environment on Cope's Gray Treefrogs (Hyla chrysoscelis) Exposed to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. J HERPETOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1670/21-058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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8
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Wetsch O, Strasburg M, McQuigg J, Boone MD. Is overwintering mortality driving enigmatic declines? Evaluating the impacts of trematodes and the amphibian chytrid fungus on an anuran from hatching through overwintering. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0262561. [PMID: 35030210 PMCID: PMC8759641 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are increasing globally and are an additional challenge to species dealing with native parasites and pathogens. Therefore, understanding the combined effects of infectious agents on hosts is important for species’ conservation and population management. Amphibians are hosts to many parasites and pathogens, including endemic trematode flatworms (e.g., Echinostoma spp.) and the novel pathogenic amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis [Bd]). Our study examined how exposure to trematodes during larval development influenced the consequences of Bd pathogen exposure through critical life events. We found that prior exposure to trematode parasites negatively impacted metamorphosis but did not influence the effect of Bd infection on terrestrial growth and survival. Bd infection alone, however, resulted in significant mortality during overwintering—an annual occurrence for most temperate amphibians. The results of our study indicated overwintering mortality from Bd could provide an explanation for enigmatic declines and highlights the importance of examining the long-term consequences of novel parasite exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Wetsch
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Miranda Strasburg
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jessica McQuigg
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Michelle D. Boone
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, United States of America
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Urbina J, Bredeweg EM, Blaustein AR, Garcia TS. Direct and Latent Effects of Pathogen Exposure Across Native and Invasive Amphibian Life Stages. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:732993. [PMID: 34778428 PMCID: PMC8585985 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.732993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are one of the multiple factors contributing to the current "biodiversity crisis". As part of the worldwide biodiversity crisis, amphibian populations are declining globally. Chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease, caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is a major cause of amphibian population declines. This fungus primarily affects keratinized structures in larval, juvenile, and adult amphibians as well as heart function. However, we know little about how Bd can impact embryos as well as potential latent effects of Bd exposure over ontogeny. Using two different Bd strains and multiple exposure times, we examined the effects of Bd exposure in Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris regilla), Western toad (Anaxyrus boreas) and American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) life stages. Using a factorial experimental design, embryos of these three species were exposed to Bd at early and late embryonic stages, with some individuals re-exposed after hatching. Embryonic Bd exposure resulted in differential survival as a function of host species, Bd strain and timing of exposure. P. regilla experienced embryonic mortality when exposed during later developmental stages to one Bd strain. There were no differences across the treatments in embryonic mortality of A. boreas and embryonic mortality of L. catesbeianus occurred in all Bd exposure treatments. We detected latent effects in A. boreas and L. catesbeianus larvae, as mortality increased when individuals had been exposed to any of the Bd strains during the embryonic stage. We also detected direct effects on larval mortality in all three anuran species as a function of Bd strain, and when individuals were double exposed (late in the embryonic stage and again as larvae). Our results suggest that exposure to Bd can directly affect embryo survival and has direct and latent effects on larvae survival of both native and invasive species. However, these impacts were highly context dependent, with timing of exposure and Bd strain influencing the severity of the effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Urbina
- Environmental Sciences Graduate Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Evan M Bredeweg
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Andrew R Blaustein
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Tiffany S Garcia
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
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Preuss JF, Greenspan SE, Rossi EM, Lucas Gonsales EM, Neely WJ, Valiati VH, Woodhams DC, Becker CG, Tozetti AM. Widespread Pig Farming Practice Linked to Shifts in Skin Microbiomes and Disease in Pond-Breeding Amphibians. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11301-11312. [PMID: 32845628 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Farming practices may reshape the structure of watersheds, water quality, and the health of aquatic organisms. Nutrient enrichment from agricultural pollution increases disease pressure in many host-pathogen systems, but the mechanisms underlying this pattern are not always resolved. For example, nutrient enrichment should strongly influence pools of aquatic environmental bacteria, which has the potential to alter microbiome composition of aquatic animals and their vulnerability to disease. However, shifts in the host microbiome have received little attention as a link between nutrient enrichment and diseases of aquatic organisms. We examined nutrient enrichment through the widespread practice of integrated pig-fish farming and its effects on microbiome composition of Brazilian amphibians and prevalence of the globally distributed amphibian skin pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). This farming system drove surges in fecal coliform bacteria, disturbing amphibian skin bacterial communities such that hosts recruited higher proportions of Bd-facilitative bacteria and carried higher Bd prevalence. Our results highlight previously overlooked connections between global trends in land use change, microbiome dysbiosis, and wildlife disease. These interactions may be particularly important for disease management in the tropics, a region with both high biodiversity and continually intensifying anthropogenic pressures on aquatic wildlife habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson F Preuss
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, RS 93022-750, Brazil
- Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Universidade do Oeste de Santa Catarina, São Miguel do Oeste, SC 89900-000, Brazil
| | - Sasha E Greenspan
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487, United States
| | - Eliandra M Rossi
- Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Universidade do Oeste de Santa Catarina, São Miguel do Oeste, SC 89900-000, Brazil
| | - Elaine M Lucas Gonsales
- Departamento de Zootecnia e Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, RS 98300-000, Brazil
| | - Wesley J Neely
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487, United States
| | - Victor Hugo Valiati
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, RS 93022-750, Brazil
| | - Douglas C Woodhams
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts 02125, United States
| | - C Guilherme Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487, United States
| | - Alexandro M Tozetti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, São Leopoldo, RS 93022-750, Brazil
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McCoy KA, Peralta AL. Pesticides Could Alter Amphibian Skin Microbiomes and the Effects of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:748. [PMID: 29731742 PMCID: PMC5919957 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Krista A McCoy
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
| | - Ariane L Peralta
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
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12
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Battaglin WA, Smalling KL, Anderson C, Calhoun D, Chestnut T, Muths E. Potential interactions among disease, pesticides, water quality and adjacent land cover in amphibian habitats in the United States. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 566-567:320-332. [PMID: 27232962 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
To investigate interactions among disease, pesticides, water quality, and adjacent land cover, we collected samples of water, sediment, and frog tissue from 21 sites in 7 States in the United States (US) representing a variety of amphibian habitats. All samples were analyzed for >90 pesticides and pesticide degradates, and water and frogs were screened for the amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) using molecular methods. Pesticides and pesticide degradates were detected frequently in frog breeding habitats (water and sediment) as well as in frog tissue. Fungicides occurred more frequently in water, sediment, and tissue than was expected based upon their limited use relative to herbicides or insecticides. Pesticide occurrence in water or sediment was not a strong predictor of occurrence in tissue, but pesticide concentrations in tissue were correlated positively to agricultural and urban land, and negatively to forested land in 2-km buffers around the sites. Bd was detected in water at 45% of sites, and on 34% of swabbed frogs. Bd detections in water were not associated with differences in land use around sites, but sites with detections had colder water. Frogs that tested positive for Bd were associated with sites that had higher total fungicide concentrations in water and sediment, but lower insecticide concentrations in sediments relative to frogs that were Bd negative. Bd concentrations on frog swabs were positively correlated to dissolved organic carbon, and total nitrogen and phosphorus, and negatively correlated to pH and water temperature. Data were collected from a range of locations and amphibian habitats and represent some of the first field-collected information aimed at understanding the interactions between pesticides, land use, and amphibian disease. These interactions are of particular interest to conservation efforts as many amphibians live in altered habitats and may depend on wetlands embedded in these landscapes to survive.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Battaglin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Colorado Water Science Center, Lakewood, CO, United States
| | - K L Smalling
- U.S. Geological Survey, New Jersey Water Science Center, Lawrenceville, NJ, United States
| | - C Anderson
- U.S. Geological Survey, Oregon Water Science Center, Portland, OR, United States
| | - D Calhoun
- U.S. Geological Survey South Atlantic Water Science Center, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - T Chestnut
- National Park Service, Mount Rainer National Park, Ashford, WA, United States
| | - E Muths
- U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Center, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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