Analysis of changes in DNA copy number in radiation-induced thymic lymphomas of susceptible C57BL/6, resistant C3H and hybrid F1 Mice

Mechanisms Underlying the Development of Murine T-Cell Lymphoblastic Lymphoma/Leukemia Induced by Total-Body Irradiation

Exposure to ionizing radiation is associated with an increased risk of hematologic malignancies in myeloid and lymphoid lineages in humans and experimental mice. Given that substantial evidence links radiation exposure with the risk of hematologic malignancies, it is imperative to deeply understand the mechanisms underlying cellular and molecular changes during the latency period between radiation exposure and the emergence of fully transformed malignant cells. One experimental model widely used in the field of radiation and cancer biology to study hematologic malignancies induced by radiation exposure is mouse models of radiation-induced thymic lymphoma. Murine radiation-induced thymic lymphoma is primarily driven by aberrant activation of Notch signaling, which occurs frequently in human precursor T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma (T-LBL) and T-cell lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). Here, we summarize the literature elucidating cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous mechanisms underlying cancer initiation, progression, and malignant transformation in the thymus following total-body irradiation (TBI) in mice.

Animal models of acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Recapitulating the human disease to evaluate drug efficacy and discover therapeutic targets

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a malignant hematologic tumor with highly aggressive characteristics, which is prone to relapse, has a poor prognosis and few clinically effective drugs. It is meaningful to gain a better understanding of its pathogenesis in order to discover and evaluate potential therapeutic drugs and new treatment targets. The goal of developing novel targeted drugs and treatment methods is to increase complete remission, reduce toxicity and morbidity, and that is also the most important prerequisite for modern leukemia treatment. However, the process of new drugs from research and development to clinical application is long and difficult. Many promising drugs were rejected by the USFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA) due to serious adverse drug reactions (ADR) in clinical phase I trials. Animal models provide us with an excellent tool to understand the complex pathological mechanisms of human diseases, to evaluate the potential of new targeted drugs and therapeutic approaches to treat ALL in vivo and, more importantly, to assess the potential ADR they may have on healthy organs. In this article we review ALL animal models' progression, their roles in revealing the pathogenesis of ALL and drug development. Additionally, we mainly focus on the mouse models, especially xenotransplantation and transgenic models that more closely reproduce the human phenotype. In conclusion, we summarize the advantages and limitations of each model, thereby facilitating further understanding the etiology of ALL, and eventually contributing to the effective management of the disease.

Mutational landscape of T-cell lymphoma in mice lacking the DNA mismatch repair gene Mlh1: no synergism with ionizing radiation

Biallelic germline mutations in the DNA mismatch repair gene MLH1 lead to constitutional mismatch repair-deficiency syndrome and an increased risk for childhood hematopoietic malignancies, including lymphoma and leukemia. To examine how Mlh1 dysfunction promotes lymphoma as well as the influence of ionizing radiation (IR) exposure, we used an Mlh1-/- mouse model and whole-exome sequencing to assess genomic alterations in 23 T-cell lymphomas, including 8 spontaneous and 15 IR-associated lymphomas. Exposure to IR accelerated T-cell lymphoma induction in the Mlh1-/- mice, and whole-exome sequencing revealed that IR exposure neither increased the number of mutations nor altered the mutation spectrum of the lymphomas. Frequent mutations were evident in genes encoding transcription factors (e.g. Ikzf1, Trp53, Bcl11b), epigenetic regulators (e.g. Suv420h1, Ep300, Kmt2d), transporters (e.g. Rangap1, Kcnj16), extracellular matrix (e.g. Megf6, Lrig1), cell motility (e.g. Argef19, Dnah17), protein kinase cascade (e.g. Ptpro, Marcks) and in genes involved in NOTCH (e.g. Notch1), and PI3K/AKT (e.g. Pten, Akt2) signaling pathways in both spontaneous and IR-associated lymphomas. Frameshift mutations in mononucleotide repeat sequences within the genes Trp53, Ep300, Kmt2d, Notch1, Pten and Marcks were newly identified in the lymphomas. The lymphomas also exhibited a few chromosomal abnormalities. The results establish a landscape of genomic alterations in spontaneous and IR-associated lymphomas that occur in the context of mismatch repair dysfunction and suggest potential targets for cancer treatment.

Mouse models for radiation-induced cancers

Potential ionising radiation exposure scenarios are varied, but all bring risks beyond the simple issues of short-term survival. Whether accidentally exposed to a single, whole-body dose in an act of terrorism or purposefully exposed to fractionated doses as part of a therapeutic regimen, radiation exposure carries the consequence of elevated cancer risk. The long-term impact of both intentional and unintentional exposure could potentially be mitigated by treatments specifically developed to limit the mutations and precancerous replication that ensue in the wake of irradiation The development of such agents would undoubtedly require a substantial degree of in vitro testing, but in order to accurately recapitulate the complex process of radiation-induced carcinogenesis, well-understood animal models are necessary. Inbred strains of the laboratory mouse, Mus musculus, present the most logical choice due to the high number of molecular and physiological similarities they share with humans. Their small size, high rate of breeding and fully sequenced genome further increase its value for use in cancer research. This chapter will review relevant m. musculus inbred and F1 hybrid animals of radiation-induced myeloid leukemia, thymic lymphoma, breast and lung cancers. Method of cancer induction and associated molecular pathologies will also be described for each model.

Genetic Analysis of T Cell Lymphomas in Carbon Ion-Irradiated Mice Reveals Frequent Interstitial Chromosome Deletions: Implications for Second Cancer Induction in Normal Tissues during Carbon Ion Radiotherapy

Monitoring mice exposed to carbon ion radiotherapy provides an indirect method to evaluate the potential for second cancer induction in normal tissues outside the radiotherapy target volume, since such estimates are not yet possible from historical patient data. Here, male and female B6C3F1 mice were given single or fractionated whole-body exposure(s) to a monoenergetic carbon ion radiotherapy beam at the Heavy Ion Medical Accelerator in Chiba, Japan, matching the radiation quality delivered to the normal tissue ahead of the tumour volume (average linear energy transfer = 13 keV.μm^-1) during patient radiotherapy protocols. The mice were monitored for the remainder of their lifespan, and a large number of T cell lymphomas that arose in these mice were analysed alongside those arising following an equivalent dose of ¹³⁷Cs gamma ray-irradiation. Using genome-wide DNA copy number analysis to identify genomic loci involved in radiation-induced lymphomagenesis and subsequent detailed analysis of Notch1, Ikzf1, Pten, Trp53 and Bcl11b genes, we compared the genetic profile of the carbon ion- and gamma ray-induced tumours. The canonical set of genes previously associated with radiation-induced T cell lymphoma was identified in both radiation groups. While the pattern of disruption of the various pathways was somewhat different between the radiation types, most notably Pten mutation frequency and loss of heterozygosity flanking Bcl11b, the most striking finding was the observation of large interstitial deletions at various sites across the genome in carbon ion-induced tumours, which were only seen infrequently in the gamma ray-induced tumours analysed. If such large interstitial chromosomal deletions are a characteristic lesion of carbon ion irradiation, even when using the low linear energy transfer radiation to which normal tissues are exposed in radiotherapy patients, understanding the dose-response and tissue specificity of such DNA damage could prove key to assessing second cancer risk in carbon ion radiotherapy patients.

Chromosome instability induced by Mps1 and p53 mutation generates aggressive lymphomas exhibiting aneuploidy-induced stress

Aneuploidy is a hallmark of human solid cancers that arises from errors in mitosis and results in gain and loss of oncogenes and tumor suppressors. Aneuploidy poses a growth disadvantage for cells grown in vitro, suggesting that cancer cells adapt to this burden. To understand better the consequences of aneuploidy in a rapidly proliferating adult tissue, we engineered a mouse in which chromosome instability was selectively induced in T cells. A flanked by Lox mutation was introduced into the monopolar spindle 1 (Mps1) spindle-assembly checkpoint gene so that Cre-mediated recombination would create a truncated protein (Mps1(DK)) that retained the kinase domain but lacked the kinetochore-binding domain and thereby weakened the checkpoint. In a sensitized p53(+/-) background we observed that Mps1(DK/DK) mice suffered from rapid-onset acute lymphoblastic lymphoma. The tumors were highly aneuploid and exhibited a metabolic burden similar to that previously characterized in aneuploid yeast and cultured cells. The tumors nonetheless grew rapidly and were lethal within 3-4 mo after birth.

Dynamics of changes in physiological parameters of mice with different radiosensitivity after acute γ-irradiation

We studied radiosensitivity of 101/Hf, C3H/Sn, and C57Bl mice exposed to sublethal doses of γ-radiation. C57Bl mice responded to radiation much later than 101/Hf and C3H/Sn mice, while their adaptability was high enough. 101/Hf and C3H/Sn mice developed acute radiation sickness in a similar way. However, C3H/Sn mice showed better physiological indicators after radiation crisis. There was no noticeable improvement after the development of radiation sickness in 101/Hf mice. To assess individual radiosensitivity, integrated approach should be applied using the data obtained by different methods on several physiological levels.

Mouse models of radiation-induced cancers

Radiation-induced (RI) secondary cancers were not a major clinical concern even as little as 15 years ago. However, advances in cancer diagnostics, therapy, and supportive care have saved numerous lives and many former cancer patients are now living for 5, 10, 20, and more years beyond their initial diagnosis. The majority of these patients have received radiotherapy as a part of their treatment regimen and are now beginning to develop secondary cancers arising from normal tissue exposure to damaging effects of ionizing radiation. Because historically patients rarely survived past the extended latency periods inherent to these RI cancers, very little effort was channeled towards the research leading to the development of therapeutic agents intended to prevent or ameliorate oncogenic effects of normal tissue exposure to radiation. The number of RI cancers is expected to increase very rapidly in the near future, but the field of cancer biology might not be prepared to address important issues related to this phenomena. One such issue is the ability to accurately differentiate between primary tumors and de novo arising secondary tumors in the same patient. Another issue is the lack of therapeutic agents intended to reduce such cancers in the future. To address these issues, large-scale epidemiological studies must be supplemented with appropriate animal modeling studies. This work reviews relevant mouse (Mus musculus) models of inbred and F1 animals and methodologies of induction of most relevant radiation-associated cancers: leukemia, lymphoma, and lung and breast cancers. Where available, underlying molecular pathologies are included.

Mouse models for efficacy testing of agents against radiation carcinogenesis—a literature review

As the number of cancer survivors treated with radiation as a part of their therapy regimen is constantly increasing, so is concern about radiation-induced cancers. This increases the need for therapeutic and mitigating agents against secondary neoplasias. Development and efficacy testing of these agents requires not only extensive in vitro assessment, but also a set of reliable animal models of radiation-induced carcinogenesis. The laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) remains one of the best animal model systems for cancer research due to its molecular and physiological similarities to man, small size, ease of breeding in captivity and a fully sequenced genome. This work reviews relevant M. musculus inbred and F₁ hybrid animal models and methodologies of induction of radiation-induced leukemia, thymic lymphoma, breast, and lung cancer in these models. Where available, the associated molecular pathologies are also included.

Susceptibility loci and chromosomal abnormalities in radiation induced hematopoietic neoplasms in mice

Genetics of susceptibility to radiation-induced hematopoietic neoplasms and somatic chromosomal aberrations were analyzed in 305 backcross (CcS-17xCcS-2)xCcS-2 mice of two CcS/Dem recombinant congenic strains. Irradiated CcS-2 mice were previously shown to exhibit high frequency of myeloid neoplasms whereas irradiated CcS-17 mice were susceptible to T-cell lymphomas. Mice were exposed to four whole-body irradiation doses of 1.7 Gy at one week intervals, which resulted in 139 hematopoietic neoplasms. The hematopoietic neoplasms were classified according to the Bethesda proposals for classification of lymphoid and nonlymphoid hematopoietic neoplasms in mice. Genotyping of mice with 24 microsatellite markers and subsequent statistical analysis indicated linkage of the radiation induced T-lymphomas to two loci on chromosome 10 (D10Mit134) and chromosome 12 (D12Mit52). T-lymphoma susceptibility appeared to be linked to D10Mit134 in a sex dependent way. In contrast, the myeloid-granulocytic leukemias susceptibility is linked to combined effects of chromosome 5 (D5Mit179) and 16 (D16Mit34). Cytogenetic analysis was performed according to the standard G-bands procedure and confirmed using FISH method. We found non-random numerical and structural chromosomal changes in lymphoid neoplasms. Cytogenetic analysis indicated chromosomal aberrations presumably associated with lymphomagenesis, no specific cancer-related rearrangements were observed.

Genomic and gene expression signatures of radiation in medulloblastomas after low-dose irradiation in Ptch1 heterozygous mice

Accurate cancer risk assessment of low-dose radiation poses many challenges that are partly due to the inability to distinguish radiation-induced tumors from spontaneous ones. To elucidate characteristic features of radiation-induced tumors, we analyzed 163 medulloblastomas that developed either spontaneously or after X-ray irradiation at doses of 0.05-3 Gy in Ptch1 heterozygous mice. All spontaneous tumors showed loss of heterozygosity in broad regions on chromosome 13, with losses at all consecutive markers distal to Ptch1 locus (S-type). In contrast, all tumors that developed after 3 Gy irradiation exhibited interstitial losses around Ptch1 with distal markers retained (R-type). There was a clear dose-dependent increase in the proportion of R-type tumors within the intermediate dose range, indicating that the R-type change is a reliable radiation signature. Importantly, the incidence of R-type tumors increased significantly (P = 0.007) at a dose as low as 50 mGy. Integrated array-comparative genomic hybridization and expression microarray analyses demonstrated that expression levels of many genes around the Ptch1 locus faithfully reflected the signature-associated reduction in genomic copy number. Furthermore, 573 genes on other chromosomes were also expressed differently between S-type and R-type tumors. They include genes whose expression changes during early cerebellar development such as Plagl1 and Tgfb2, suggesting a recapitulation of gene subsets functioning at distinct developmental stages. These findings provide, for the first time, solid experimental evidence for a significant increase in cancer risk by low-dose radiation at diagnostic levels and imply that radiation-induced carcinogenesis accompanies both genomic and gene expression signatures.