Calcitonin induces 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA expression via protein kinase C pathway in LLC-PK1 cells

A feline-focused review of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders - Part 1: Physiology of calcium handling

Mineral derangements are a common consequence of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Despite the well-established role of phosphorus in the pathophysiology of CKD, the implications of calcium disturbances associated with CKD remain equivocal. Calcium plays an essential role in numerous physiological functions in the body and is a fundamental structural component of bone. An understanding of calcium metabolism is required to understand the potential adverse clinical implications and outcomes secondary to the (mal)adaptation of calcium-regulating hormones in CKD. The first part of this two-part review covers the physiology of calcium homeostasis (kidneys, intestines and bones) and details the intimate relationships between calcium-regulating hormones (parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, fibroblast growth factor 23, α-Klotho and calcitonin) and the role of the calcium-sensing receptor.

Microgravity Reduces the Differentiation and Regenerative Potential of Embryonic Stem Cells

Mechanical unloading in microgravity is thought to induce tissue degeneration by various mechanisms, including inhibition of regenerative stem cell differentiation. To address this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of microgravity on early lineage commitment of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) using the embryoid body (EB) model of tissue differentiation. We found that exposure to microgravity for 15 days inhibits mESC differentiation and expression of terminal germ layer lineage markers in EBs. Additionally, microgravity-unloaded EBs retained stem cell self-renewal markers, suggesting that mechanical loading at Earth's gravity is required for normal differentiation of mESCs. Finally, cells recovered from microgravity-unloaded EBs and then cultured at Earth's gravity showed greater stemness, differentiating more readily into contractile cardiomyocyte colonies. These results indicate that mechanical unloading of stem cells in microgravity inhibits their differentiation and preserves stemness, possibly providing a cellular mechanistic basis for the inhibition of tissue regeneration in space and in disuse conditions on earth.

Vitamin D and the kidney

The kidney is essential for the maintenance of normal calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. Calcium and inorganic phosphorus are filtered at the glomerulus, and are reabsorbed from tubular segments by transporters and channels which are regulated by 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin (1α,25(OH)(2)D) and parathyroid hormone (PTH). The kidney is the major site of the synthesis of 1α,25(OH)(2)D under physiologic conditions, and is one of the sites of 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (24,25(OH)(2)D) synthesis. The activity of the 25(OH)D-1α-hydroxylase, the mixed function oxidase responsible for the synthesis of 1α,25(OH)(2)D, is regulated by PTH, 1α,25(OH)(2)D, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), inorganic phosphorus and other growth factors. Additionally, the vitamin D receptor which binds to, and mediates the activity of 1α,25(OH)(2)D, is widely distributed in the kidney. Thus, the kidney, by regulating multiple transport and synthetic processes is indispensible in the maintenance of mineral homeostasis in physiological states.

Calcitonin induces connective tissue growth factor through ERK1/2 signaling in renal tubular cells

Calcitonin (CT), a polypeptide hormone, plays important roles in a variety of physiological processes. CT has been used clinically to treat osteoporosis and humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy. In order to clarify the pharmacological effects of CT in the kidney, we identified potential downstream genes induced by CT in the renal cells. Using a cDNA subtraction hybridization method, we identified connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) as a CT-induced gene in the porcine renal cell line, LLC-PK1. Furthermore, we found that CT-mediated induction of the gene was not inhibited by cycloheximide, which suggests that CTGF gene was not induced by an increased synthesis of regulating proteins. Therefore, CTGF is an immediate early gene. We further demonstrated that the regulation of CTGF gene expression by CT involved the ERK1/2 pathway, because PD98059, a MEK1 inhibitor, partially inhibited the mRNA expression of CTGF induced by CT. CT-induced CTGF protein expression was also observed in vivo. Our present findings suggest that CT induces the transcription of CTGF through ERK1/2 phosphorylation. We also identified twelve other genes induced by CT that, like CTGF, were related to wound healing. These results suggest that CT may have an effect on renal differentiation and wound healing in the kidney.

Ca2+-dependent regulation of calcitonin gene expression by the transcriptional repressor DREAM

Calcitonin (CT), whose secretion from thyroid glands is regulated by increases in the concentration of extracellular Ca(2+), is a well-known hormone that regulates calcium homeostasis. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the gene expression dependent on Ca(2+) have not been clarified. The downstream regulatory element (DRE) antagonist modulator (DREAM) was recently identified as a Ca(2+)-dependent transcriptional repressor. In the present study, we investigated the possible involvement of DREAM in the regulation of CT gene expression and secretion. A luciferase assay using TT cells, a thyroid carcinoma cell line, showed that a particular region in the CT gene promoter repressed the promoter activity under basal conditions but induced the activity when the Ca(2+) concentration was increased. We found two DRE sequences in a region located upstream from the transcription start site. Gel retardation assay confirmed that DREAM bound to the CT-DRE and also indicated that DREAM bound to the DRE in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. We generated stable transfectants of TT cells with wild-type or mutant DREAM, which lacked the responsiveness to Ca(2+) changes. In contrast to the wild type, overexpression of the mutant DREAM inhibited the increase in CT secretion induced by a calcium ionophore. The addition of forskolin to increase cAMP activated the CT promoter, probably by the interaction of DREAM with cAMP-responsive element binding proteins, independent on the activation by Ca(2+). Together, these results suggest that DREAM plays an important role in human CT gene expression in a Ca(2+)- and cAMP-dependent manner.

Calcitonin therapy in osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is the most prevalent metabolic bone disease and is characterized by diminished bone strength predisposing to an increased risk of fracture. Its incidence is particularly high in postmenopausal women but it can also affect other groups, such as men and patients receiving corticosteroid therapy. Calcitonin is a naturally occurring peptide which acts via specific receptors to strongly inhibit osteoclast function. It has been used in the treatment of osteoporosis for many years. Historically, calcitonin was administered as a parenteral injection, but the intranasal formulation is now the most widely used because of its improved tolerability. New approaches are currently being investigated to enhance the bioavailability and effects of calcitonin, including oral, pulmonary, and transdermal routes of administration, and novel allosteric activators of the calcitonin receptor. Several controlled trials have reported that calcitonin stabilizes and in some cases produces a short-term increase in bone density at the lumbar spine level. The most relevant clinical trial to evaluate the effect of calcitonin in the prevention of fractures was the Prevent Recurrence of Osteoporotic Fractures (PROOF) study, a 5-year double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial showing that salmon calcitonin nasal spray at a dosage of 200 IU/day can reduce the risk of vertebral osteoporotic fractures by 33% (relative risk [RR] = 0.67; 95% CI 0.47, 0.97; p = 0.03). However, the 100 and 400 IU/day dosages did not significantly reduce vertebral fracture risk. Effects on nonvertebral fractures were not significant (RR = 0.80; 95% CI 0.59, 1.09; p = 0.16). There is mounting evidence to show that calcitonin diminishes bone pain in osteoporotic vertebral fractures, which may have clinical utility in vertebral crush fracture syndrome. A recent study suggests that nasal salmon calcitonin appears to be a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of men with idiopathic osteoporosis, although long-term trials are necessary to confirm these results and evaluate fracture rate as an endpoint in men. The role of calcitonin in corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis remains controversial, hence it can only be considered a second-line agent for the treatment of patients with low bone mineral density who are receiving long-term corticosteroid therapy.

Klotho protein activates the PKC pathway in the kidney and testis and suppresses 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene expression

Homozygous Klotho mutant (kl-/-) mice exhibit a variety of phenotypes resembling human aging, including arteriosclerosis, infertility, skin atrophy, osteoporosis, and short life span. Calcium abnormality, one of the phenotypes in kl-/- mice, is thought to be due to the elevated gene expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase in the kidney. We studied 25-hydroxy-vitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene expression using a Klotho plasmid that we had previously constructed for Klotho protein production. It was found that Klotho protein medium upregulated cAMP and the PKC pathway, and suppressed 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydrox-ylase in kidney cells. However, both cAMP and PKC are known to elevate 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene expression, therefore, another unknown calcium regulation pathway using Klotho protein medium might exist. Furthermore, we found that activation of the PKC pathway by Klotho was observed only in the kidney and testis, where the Klotho gene is expressed, although activation of the cAMP pathway was observed in any kind of cell. These data suggest that calcium regulation through 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase by Klotho depends on non-cAMP and a non-PKC pathway and that the Klotho protein may have different signaling pathways, depending on the Klotho gene expression in different cells and organs.

Calcitonin: physiological actions and clinical applications

Calcitonin (CT) was first reported as a hypocalcemic principle, initially thought to originate from the parathyroid gland, a view subsequently corrected to an origin from parafollicular C-cells. Human CT is a 32 amino acid peptide with an N-terminal disulphide bridge and a C-terminal prolineamide residue, shown to potently inhibit bone resorption. More recent studies have demonstrated that this may take place through a direct osteoclastic action. A number of osteoclast CT receptors have subsequently been characterized and particular receptor regions necessary for ligand binding and intracellular signaling identified. Its potent anti-resorptive effect has led to its use in treating Paget's bone disease, osteoporosis, hypercalcaemia and osteogenesis imperfecta. This review summarises some key aspects of its synthesis, structure and its actions at the cellular and molecular levels, and leads on to its therapeutic uses that have emerged since its discovery as well as possibilities for future clinical applications.

Abnormal regulation of renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase activity in X-linked hypophosphatemia: a translational or post-translational defect

The hyp mouse exhibits abnormal metabolic/hormonal regulation of renal 25(OH)D-1alpha-hydroxylase activity. Whether this results from aberrant transcriptional regulation of the 1alpha-hydroxylase gene, CYP27B1, remains unknown. To investigate this possibility, we compared phosphate and parathyroid hormone effects on renal proximal convoluted tubule and thyrocalcitonin effects on proximal straight tubule enzyme activity and mRNA expression in normal and hyp mice. We assayed 25(OH)D-1alpha-hydroxylase activity by measuring 1,25(OH)2D production and mRNA by ribonuclease protection. Phosphate-depleted mice exhibited a 3-fold increment of 25(OH)D-1alpha-hydroxylase activity compared with normals, whereas hyp mice displayed no enhanced enzyme function. Phosphate-depleted mice concurrently displayed a 2-fold increase in mRNA transcripts; in contrast, despite failure to alter enzyme activity, hyp mice exhibited a similar increment in mRNA transcripts. Parathyroid hormone stimulation of normal mice increased 25(OH)D-1alpha-hydroxylase activity 10-fold, while eliciting only a 2-fold increment in hyp mouse enzyme function. This disparity occurred despite increments of mRNA transcripts to comparable levels (22.2 +/- 3.5- vs. 19.9 +/- 1.8-fold). The dissociation between phosphate- and parathyroid hormone-mediated transcriptional activity and protein function was not universal. Thus, thyrocalcitonin stimulation of normal and hyp mice resulted in comparable enhancement of mRNA transcripts and enzyme activity. These observations indicate that abnormal regulation of vitamin D metabolism in hyp mice occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule and results, not from aberrant transcriptional regulation, but from a defect in translational or post-translational activity.

Hormonal regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1alpha-hydroxylase and 24-hydroxylase gene transcription in opossum kidney cells

In the kidney, 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) (25(OH)D) is converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25(OH)(2)D) by the 25(OH)D(3)-1alpha-hydroxylase enzyme, which contains a terminal cytochrome P450 (CYP1alpha) (systematic name: CYP27B1). Likewise, the kidney also produces 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and 1,24,25-trihydroxyvitamin D(3) via a 24-hydroxylase whose terminal cytochrome P450 is CYP24. The purpose of this study was to characterize the transcriptional regulation of the CYP1alpha and CYP24 genes by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and 1,25(OH)(2)D in the kidney. Promoter-reporter gene constructs were transfected into opossum kidney (OK) cells, a renal proximal tubular cell line with endogenous PTH and 1,25(OH)(2)D receptors. PTH and forskolin stimulated CYP1alpha promoter activity via a cAMP-dependent pathway acting through the phosphorylation of CREB (cAMP-dependent response element-binding protein). This stimulation did not require new protein synthesis but may be modulated by short-lived proteins. 1,25(OH)(2)D modestly inhibited basal and forskolin-stimulated CYP1alpha promoter activity. The stimulation of CYP1alpha promoter activity by PTH and forskolin can account for the effect of these hormones on renal CYP1alpha mRNA levels. CYP24 promoter activity in transfected cells was increased by both 1,25(OH)(2)D and PTH, but there was no interaction between the two. The modest effects of 1,25(OH)(2)D and PTH on promoter activity and their lack of interaction do not account for the effects of these hormones on renal CYP24 mRNA levels. This suggests that there may be important posttranscriptional regulation of CYP24 mRNA in the kidney.

Hydroxylase enzymes of the vitamin D pathway: expression, function, and regulation

Vitamin D is a secosteroid that is metabolically activated and degraded through the actions of three cytochrome P450 hydroxylase enzymes. Bioactivation occurs through the sequential actions of cytochromes P450C25 and P450C1, resulting in synthesis of the pleiotropic hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25VD), which regulates over 60 genes whose actions include those associated with calcium homeostasis and immune responses as well as cellular growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Inactivation of 1,25VD occurs by C23/C24 oxidation pathways that are catalyzed by the multifunctional cytochrome P450C24 enzyme. Both P450C1 and P450C24 are highly regulated enzymes whose differential expression is controlled in response to numerous cellular modulatory agents such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, interferon gamma, calcium, phosphorus, and pituitary hormones as well as the secosteroid hormone 1,25VD. Most thoroughly studied at the molecular level are the actions of PTH to upregulate P450C1 gene expression and 1,25VD to induce the expression of P450C24. The regulatory action of PTH is mediated through the protein kinase A pathway and involves the phosphorylation of transcription factors that function at the proximal promoter of the P450C1 gene. The upregulation of P450C24 by 1,25VD has both a rapid nongenomic and a slower genomic component that are functionally linked. The rapid response involves protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways that direct the phosphorylation of nuclear transcription factors. The slower genomic actions are linked to the binding of 1,25VD to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and the interaction of the VDR-1,25VD complex with its heterodimer partner retinoid-X-receptor and associated coactivators. The regulatory complex is assembled on vitamin D response elements in the proximal promoter of the P450C24 gene and functions to increase the transcription rate.

Calcitonin: the other thyroid hormone

Calcitonin was originally discovered as a hypocalcemic factor synthesized by thyroid parafollicular C cells. Early experiments demonstrated that calcitonin inhibited bone resorption and decreased calcium efflux from isolated cat tibiae and subsequent histologic and culture studies confirmed the osteoclast as its major site of action. Its potent antiresorptive effect and analgesic action have led to its clinical use in treatment of Paget's bone disease, osteoporosis, and hypercalcemia of malignancy. This review surveys the cellular and molecular basis of these physiologic and clinical actions.

Forty years of calcitonin--where are we now? A tribute to the work of Iain Macintyre, FRS

Calcitonin was discovered as a hypocalcemic principal that was initially thought to originate from the parathyroid gland. This view was corrected subsequently, and an origin from the thyroid C cells was documented. The purification and sequencing of various calcitonins soon followed. Calcitonin is a 32-amino-acid-long peptide with an N-terminal disulfide bridge and a C-terminal prolineamide residue. The peptide was shown to potently inhibit bone resorption; however, a direct osteoclastic action of the peptide was confirmed only in the early 1980s. Several osteoclast calcitonin receptors have subsequently been cloned and sequenced. Specific regions of the receptor necessary for ligand binding and intracellular signaling through cyclic AMP and calcium have been identified through systematic deletion mutagenesis and chimeric receptor studies. Calcitonin's potent antiresorptive effect has led to its use in treating Paget's disease of bone, osteoporosis, and hypercalcemia. This review retraces key aspects of the synthesis and structure of calcitonin, its cellular and molecular actions, and its therapeutic uses as they have emerged over the 40 years since its discovery. The review also examines the implications of these findings for future clinical applications as a tribute to early workers to whom credit must be given for creation of an important and expanding field. Notable are the new approaches currently being used to enhance calcitonin action, including novel allosteric activators of the calcitonin receptor, modulation of the release of endogenous calcitonin by calcimimetic agents, as well as the development of oral calcitonins.

Summary of information on human CYP enzymes: human P450 metabolism data

This chapter is an update of the data on substrates, reactions, inducers, and inhibitors of human CYP enzymes published previously by Rendic and DiCarlo (1), now covering selection of the literature through 2001 in the reference section. The data are presented in a tabular form (Table 1) to provide a framework for predicting and interpreting the new P450 metabolic data. The data are formatted in an Excel format as most suitable for off-line searching and management of the Web-database. The data are presented as stated by the author(s) and in the case when several references are cited the data are presented according to the latest published information. The searchable database is available either as an Excel file (for information contact the author), or as a Web-searchable database (Human P450 Metabolism Database, www.gentest.com) enabling the readers easy and quick approach to the latest updates on human CYP metabolic reactions.

Identification of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene expression in macrophages

BACKGROUND

The 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase (1alpha-hydroxylase) is almost exclusively expressed in the kidney. However, 1alpha-hydroxylase activities have been observed in some extrarenal tissues, including inflammatory cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage. In sarcoidosis, macrophage 1alpha-hydroxylase causes overproduction of 1,25-(OH)2D3, resulting in hypercalcemia. In this study, we investigated the regulation of macrophage 1alpha-hydroxylase at a molecular level.

METHODS

We used the human monocytic cell line THP-1, which can be differentiated into macrophage-like cells by treatment with phorbol ester. The expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase in THP-1 cells was examined by Northern blotting and immunoblotting using an antibody raised against a synthetic peptide corresponding to the 14 C-terminal amino acids of 1alpha-hydroxylase. We investigated the regulation of 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA expression by RNase protection assay.

RESULTS

Northern blot and immunoblot analyses confirmed the expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase in THP-1 cells at the mRNA and protein levels. Although parathyroid hormone and calcitonin, known stimulators of renal 1alpha-hydroxylase, did not affect the expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA, 8-Br-cAMP (5 x 10-4 mol/L) increased the expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA in THP-1 cells (198 +/- 9%). 1,25-(OH)2D3, known as a suppressor of renal 1alpha-hydroxylase, did not affect the expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA. By contrast, 1,25-(OH)2D3 markedly increased the expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 24-hydroxylase mRNA. Interferon-gamma (2000 IU/mL) increased the expression of 1alpha-hydroxylase mRNA in differentiated THP-1 cells (922 +/- 25%).

CONCLUSIONS

The present results suggest that 1alpha-hydroxylase activity in macrophages is mediated by the same enzyme as in kidney. Interferon-gamma treatment increases macrophage 1alpha-hydroxylase levels via directly increasing gene expression of this enzyme.