Dichloromethane fractions of Scrophularia oxysepala extract induce apoptosis in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells

Promoting Apoptosis, a Promising Way to Treat Breast Cancer With Natural Products: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is one of the top-ranked malignant carcinomas associated with morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Chemotherapy is one of the main approaches to breast cancer treatment. Breast cancer initially responds to traditional first- and second-line drugs (aromatase inhibitor, tamoxifen, and carboplatin), but eventually acquires resistance, and certain patients relapse within 5 years. Chemotherapeutic drugs also have obvious toxic effects. In recent years, natural products have been widely used in breast cancer research because of their low side effects, low toxicity, and good efficacy based on their multitarget therapy. Apoptosis, a programmed cell death, occurs as a normal and controlled process that promotes cell growth and death. Inducing apoptosis is an important strategy to control excessive breast cancer cell proliferation. Accumulating evidence has revealed that natural products become increasingly important in breast cancer treatment by suppressing cell apoptosis. In this study, we reviewed current studies on natural product–induced breast cancer cell apoptosis and summarized the proapoptosis mechanisms including mitochondrial, FasL/Fas, PI3K/AKT, reactive oxygen species, and mitogen-activated protein kinase–mediated pathway. We hope that our review can provide direction in the search for candidate drugs derived from natural products to treat breast cancer by promoting cell apoptosis.

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Anti-Breast Cancer Stem Cell Activity of Pterocladia capillacea and Corallina officinalis Polysaccharides

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to appraise the activity of Pterocladia capillacea and Corallina officinalis polysaccharides against breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). P. capillacea and C. officinalis polysaccharides were characterized to be sulfated polysaccharide-protein complexes.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity of the polysaccharides against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cell lines along with their impact on CD44+/CD24- and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1(ALDH1) positive BCSC population were determined. Their effect on gene expression of CSC markers, Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways was evaluated.

RESULTS

P. capillacea and C. officinalis polysaccharides inhibited the growth of breast cancer cells and reduced BCSC subpopulation. P. capillacea polysaccharides significantly down-regulated OCT4, SOX2, ALDH1A3 and vimentin in MDA-MB-231 as well as in MCF-7 cells except for vimentin that was up-regulated in MCF-7 cells. C. officinalis polysaccharides exhibited similar effects except for OCT4 that was up-regulated in MDA-MB-231 cells. Significant suppression of Cyclin D1 gene expression was noted in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells treated with P. capillacea or C. officinalis polysaccharides. β-catenin and c-Myc genes were significantly down-regulated in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with C. officinalis and P. capillacea polysaccharides, respectively, while being up-regulated in MCF-7 cells treated with either of them. Additionally, P. capillacea and C. officinalis polysaccharides significantly down-regulated Hes1 gene in MCF-7 cells despite increasing Notch1 gene expression level. However, significant down-regulation of Notch1 gene was observed in MDA-MB-231 cells treated with P. capillacea polysaccharides.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, this study provides evidence for the effectiveness of P. capillacea and C. officinalis polysaccharides in targeting BCSCs through interfering with substantial signaling pathways contributing to their functionality.

Phytochemical analysis and antiproliferative activity of the aerial parts of Scrophularia subaphylla

Scrophularia subaphylla (S. subaphylla) L., a medicinal plant from the Scrophulariaceae family, has been reported to possess potential profits in the treatment and prophylaxis of different diseases. Some phenolic compounds in this genus have been displayed decent effects on different types of cancer via multiple mechanisms. The current study aimed to bioassay guided isolation of cytotoxic constituents from the aerial parts of S. subaphylla against breast (MCF-7) and colon (HT-29) cancer cell lines as well as normal cells (L929). Different extracts of S. subaphylla were acquired by Soxhlet apparatus and then subjected to brine shrimp lethality test and MTT assay for assessing their cytotoxic characteristics. Cytotoxic extract subjected to further phytochemical fractionation using solid phase extraction, reversed-phase high pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and one dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (1D-NMR) spectroscopy. The biological activity of the isolated pure components, verbascoside and 3' O rhamnosyl -4' O para coumaryl 7- hydroxyl salidroside, was assessed using MTT assay against MCF-7 and HT-29 carcinoma cells. Two known phenylpropanoid compounds were isolated from this species. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data (using ¹H-NMR and ¹³C-NMR) and compared with the previous literature. Both pure compounds in comparison with control group demonstrated significant antiproliferative activity against cancerous cells (P < 0.001). In our study, verbascoside and its derivative could inhibit proliferation of cancerous cells without any side effects on normal cells.

Scrophularia Atropatana Extract Reverses TP53 Gene Promoter Hypermethylation and Decreases Survivin Antiapoptotic Gene Expression in Breast Cancer Cells

Background: In many cases of breast cancer, the aberrant methylation of TP53 gene leads to uncontrolled cell proliferation and apoptosis inhibition. Moreover, expression of oncogenes which are under the control of P53 protein could be altered. Survivin as a conspicuous example of this category plays important roles in tumorigenesis, drug resistance and apoptosis inhibition. The present study was done to reveal the effects of Scrophularia atropatana extract on epigenetic situation of TP53 gene promoter and the expression levels of anti-apoptotic gene, survivin and its potential for production of cancer epi-drugs. Methods: Cytotoxic effect of dichloromethane extracts of Scrophularia plant on MCF-7 cell line was assessed in our previous study. Cell death ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and TUNEL (Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling) tests were used to investigate the occurrence of apoptosis in the treated cells. Methylation Specific PCR (MSP) was employed to assess the changes in methylation status of the TP53 gene promoter. Furthermore, quantitative real time PCR was utilized to evaluate the resulting changes in TP53 and survivin genes expression. Results: Cell death ELISA and TUNEL assays confirmed the occurrence of apoptosis. MSP test revealed a significant change in the methylation status of TP53 promoter. QRT-PCR showed an increased TP53 gene expression in the treated cells while a significant decrease in survivin mRNA was evident. Conclusions: According to the outcomes, dichloromethane extract of S. atropatana returned the TP53 gene promoter hypermethylation to normal state. This plant could be a promising source for production of epi-drugs due to its apoptotic effects and reversal of TP53 epigenetic alterations.

The Cytotoxic and Apoptotic Effects of Scrophularia Atropatana Extracts on Human Breast Cancer Cells

Purpose: Breast cancer is the most frequent malignancy diagnosed in women both in developed and developing countries. Natural products especially those from herbal origin have high potential in producing drug components with a source of novel structures. The present study was designed to explore the cytotoxic effects and the cell death mechanism of Scrophularia atropatana extracts. Methods: MTT assay was employed to evaluate the cytotoxic activity of the extracts of S. atropatana on the MCF-7 as well as non-malignant cells. Furthermore, induction of apoptosis was evaluated by TUNEL assay, cell death detection ELISA, DNA fragmentation test, western blotting and Real Time PCR. Results: In vitro exposures of the MCF-7 cells with different concentration of S. atropatana extract significantly inhibited their growth and viability and induced apoptosis in the MCF-7 cells. Cleavage PARP protein, decrease in the mRNA expression levels of bcl-2 and increase expression of Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 mRNA, highlights that the induction of apoptosis was the main mechanism of cell death. Moreover the expression study of Caspase-9 mRNA showed that, the extracts have induced apoptosis via intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Conclusion: Our results demonstrated that dichloromethane extract of Scrophularia atropatana has an apoptotic effects and it can be developed as anticancer agents.

Grifola frondosa polysaccharides induce breast cancer cell apoptosis via the mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway

Grifola frondosa, a type of food and medical fungus, has been shown to exhibit various pharmacological activities, including anticancer effects. As the most typical cancer diagnosed among female patients, breast cancer remains a huge concern threatening human health globally. In the present study, the anti-breast cancer effects of Grifola frondosa polysaccharides (GFPs) and the underlying mechanisms were investigated in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, as well as in nude mice bearing MCF-7 tumor xenografts. GFPs exerted cytotoxic effects on the cells, as indicated by a decrease in cell viability, and an increase in the apoptototic rate, lactate dehydrogenase release and reactive oxygen species accumulation, inducing mitochondrial dysfunction. The increased expression of Bax, cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-8, and the reduced levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-extra large (Bcl-xL) were observed in the cells incubated with GFPs and in the tumor tissues of the mice treated with GFPs. Moreover, the GFPs significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of AKT/glycogen synthase kinase-3β and extracellular signal-regulated kinases in a time-dependent manner. Finally, the inhibition of MCF-7 tumor xenograft growth further confirmed the anti-breast cancer effects of GFPs. All these findings revealed that GFPs induced human breast cancer cell apoptosis via the mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway, and provide experimental evidence to support the use of Grifola frondosa as a potential treatment for breast cancer.

Oxidative Stress and Carcinogenesis: Potential of Phytochemicals in Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer remains a burden in both developed and developing countries, with higher mortality in developing countries. Attempts to eradicate cancer have not been successful despite the progress made in the development of more novel chemotherapeutic drugs. Reactive-oxygen-species-mediated oxidative stress is known to play a role in breast cancer pathogenesis via genetic and epigenetic modifications, resulting in uncontrolled cell proliferation. Phytochemicals could provide leads for the development of alternative therapeutic agents due to their antioxidant activity, as well as their ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. However, most of the studies carried out using in vitro models do not continue with further studies in estrogen-receptor-positive in vivo breast cancer models, or fail to examine the possible biochemical mechanisms of phytochemical-based amelioration. This review examines oxidative-stress-mediated carcinogenesis and the potential of phytochemicals as anticancer agents.

Cordyceps militaris induces tumor cell death via the caspase‑dependent mitochondrial pathway in HepG2 and MCF‑7 cells

Cordyceps militaris (CM), an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the class ascomycetes, possesses various pharmacological activities, including cytotoxic effects, on various types of human tumor cells. The present study investigated the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and anti-breast cancer effects of CM in in vitro and in vivo models. CM aqueous extract reduced cell viability, suppressed cell proliferation, inhibited cell migration ability, caused the over-release of lactate dehydrogenase, induced mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced apoptotic rates in MCF-7 and HepG2 cells. The expression levels of cleaved poly (ADP ribose) polymerase and caspase-3, biomarkers of apoptosis, were increased following treatment with CM aqueous extract for 24 h. Furthermore, in the MCF-7 and HepG2 cells, enhanced levels of B cell-associated X protein and cleaved caspase-8 were observed in the CM-treated cells. Finally, the antitumor activities of CM in HCC and breast cancer were also confirmed in MCF-7- and HepG2-xengraft nude mice models. Collectively, the data obtained in the present study suggested that the cytotoxic effects of CM aqueous extract on HCC and breast cancer are associated with the caspase-dependent mitochondrial pathway.