The preclinical assessment of XL388, a mTOR kinase inhibitor, as a promising anti-renal cell carcinoma agent

The molecular genetics of PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR pathway in the malformations of cortical development

Malformations of cortical development (MCD) are a group of developmental disorders characterized by abnormal cortical structures caused by genetic or harmful environmental factors. Many kinds of MCD are caused by genetic variation. MCD is the common cause of intellectual disability and intractable epilepsy. With rapid advances in imaging and sequencing technologies, the diagnostic rate of MCD has been increasing, and many potential genes causing MCD have been successively identified. However, the high genetic heterogeneity of MCD makes it challenging to understand the molecular pathogenesis of MCD and to identify effective targeted drugs. Thus, in this review, we outline important events of cortical development. Then we illustrate the progress of molecular genetic studies about MCD focusing on the PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR pathway. Finally, we briefly discuss the diagnostic methods, disease models, and therapeutic strategies for MCD. The information will facilitate further research on MCD. Understanding the role of the PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTOR pathway in MCD could lead to a novel strategy for treating MCD-related diseases.

Virtual docking screening and quantitative structure-activity relationship studies to explore AKT and PI3K inhibitors acting on mTOR in cancers by theoretical biology and medical modeling

Introduction

The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) coordinates the growth and metabolism of eukaryotic cells with a central role in the regulation of many fundamental cellular processes. It is strongly connected to phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and AKT signaling. Activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway leads to a profound disruption in the control of cell growth and survival, which ultimately leads to competitive growth advantage, metastatic competence, angiogenesis and therapeutic resistance.

Material and methods

To explore the common competitive adenosine triphosphate (ATP) inhibitors PI3K/AKT and PI3K/mTOR, we built a 2D mTOR-SAR model that predicted the bioactivity of AKT and PI3K inhibitors towards mTOR. The interaction of the best inhibitors was evaluated by docking analysis and compared to that of the standard AZ8055 and XL388 inhibitors.

Results

A mechanistic target of rapamycin-quantitative structure-activity relationship (mTOR-QSAR) model with a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.80813 and a root mean square error of 0.17756 was obtained, validated and evaluated by a cross-validation leave-one-out method. The best predicted AKT and PI3K inhibitor pIC50 activities were 9.36-9.95 and 9.23-9.87 respectively.

Conclusions

After docking and several comparisons, the inhibitors with better predictions showed better affinity and interaction with mTOR compared to AZ8055 and XL388, so we have found that 2 AKT inhibitors and 9 mTOR inhibitors met the Lipinski and Veber criteria and could be future drugs.

mTORC1/rpS6 and mTORC2/PKC regulate spermatogenesis through Arp3-mediated actin microfilament organization in Eriocheir sinensis

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a crucial signaling protein regulating a range of cellular events. Numerous studies have reported that the mTOR pathway is related to spermatogenesis in mammals. However, its functions and underlying mechanisms in crustaceans remain largely unknown. mTOR exists as two multimeric functional complexes termed mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTORC2. Herein, we first cloned ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6, a downstream molecule of mTORC1) and protein kinase C (PKC, a downstream effector of mTORC2) from the testis of Eriocheir sinensis. The dynamic localization of rpS6 and PKC suggested that both proteins may be essential for spermatogenesis. rpS6/PKC knockdown and Torin1 treatment led to defects in spermatogenesis, including germ cell loss, retention of mature sperm and empty lumen formation. In addition, the integrity of the testis barrier (similar to the blood-testis barrier in mammals) was disrupted in the rpS6/PKC knockdown and Torin1 treatment groups, accompanied by changing in expression and distribution of junction proteins. Further study demonstrated that these findings may result from the disorganization of filamentous actin (F-actin) networks, which were mediated by the expression of actin-related protein 3 (Arp3) rather than epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate 8 (Eps8). In summary, our study illustrated that mTORC1/rpS6 and mTORC2/PKC regulated spermatogenesis via Arp3-mediated actin microfilament organization in E. sinensis.

Targeting the mTOR pathway using novel ATP‑competitive inhibitors, Torin1, Torin2 and XL388, in the treatment of glioblastoma

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), which functions via two multiprotein complexes termed mTORC1 and mTORC2, is positioned in the canonical phosphoinositide 3-kinase-related kinase (PI3K)/AKT (PI3K/AKT) pathways. These complexes exert their actions by regulating other important kinases, such as 40S ribosomal S6 kinases (S6K), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (elF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) and AKT, to control cell growth, proliferation, migration and survival in response to nutrients and growth factors. Glioblastoma (GB) is a devastating form of brain cancer, where the mTOR pathway is deregulated due to frequent upregulation of the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase/PI3K pathways and loss of the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN). Rapamycin and its analogs were less successful in clinical trials for patients with GB due to their incomplete inhibition of mTORC1 and the activation of mitogenic pathways via negative feedback loops. Here, the effects of selective ATP-competitive dual inhibitors of mTORC1 and mTORC2, Torin1, Torin2 and XL388, are reported. Torin2 exhibited concentration-dependent pharmacodynamic effects on inhibition of phosphorylation of the mTORC1 substrates S6K^Ser235/236 and 4E-BP1^Thr37/46 as well as the mTORC2 substrate AKT^Ser473 resulting in suppression of tumor cell migration, proliferation and S-phase entry. Torin1 demonstrated similar effects, but only at higher doses. XL388 suppressed cell proliferation at a higher dose, but failed to inhibit cell migration. Treatment with Torin1 suppressed phosphorylation of proline rich AKT substrate of 40 kDa (PRAS40) at Threonine 246 (PRAS40^Thr246) whereas Torin2 completely abolished it. XL388 treatment suppressed the phosphorylation of PRAS40^Thr246 only at higher doses. Drug resistance analysis revealed that treatment of GB cells with XL388 rendered partial drug resistance, which was also seen to a lesser extent with rapamycin and Torin1 treatments. However, treatment with Torin2 completely eradicated the tumor cell population. These results strongly suggest that Torin2, compared to Torin1 or XL388, is more effective in suppressing mTORC1 and mTORC2, and therefore in the inhibition of the GB cell proliferation, dissemination and in overcoming resistance to therapy. These findings underscore the significance of Torin2 in the treatment of GB.

The therapeutic value of XL388 in human glioma cells

XL388 is a highly efficient and orally-available ATP-competitive PI3K-mTOR dual inhibitor. Its activity against glioma cells was studied here. In established and primary human glioma cells, XL388 potently inhibited cell survival and proliferation as well as cell migration, invasion and cell cycle progression. The dual inhibitor induced significant apoptosis activation in glioma cells. In A172 cells and primary human glioma cells, XL388 inhibited Akt-mTORC1/2 activation by blocking phosphorylation of Akt and S6K1. XL388-induced glioma cell death was only partially attenuated by a constitutively-active mutant Akt1. Furthermore, it was cytotoxic against Akt1-knockout A172 glioma cells. XL388 downregulated MAF bZIP transcription factor G (MAFG) and inhibited Nrf2 signaling, causing oxidative injury in glioma cells. Conversely, antioxidants, n-acetylcysteine, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate and AGI-106, alleviated XL388-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in glioma cells. Oral administration of XL388 inhibited subcutaneous A172 xenograft growth in severe combined immunodeficient mice. Akt-S6K1 inhibition and MAFG downregulation were detected in XL388-treated A172 xenograft tissues. Collectively, XL388 efficiently inhibits human glioma cell growth, through Akt-mTOR-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Research progress of mTOR inhibitors

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a highly conserved Serine/Threonine (Ser/Thr) protein kinase, which belongs to phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-related kinase (PIKK) protein family. mTOR exists as two types of protein complex: mTORC1 and mTORC2, which act as central controller regulating processes of cell metabolism, growth, proliferation, survival and autophagy. The mTOR inhibitors block mTOR signaling pathway, producing anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, autophagy and apoptosis induction effects, thus mTOR inhibitors are mainly used in cancer therapy. At present, mTOR inhibitors are divided into four categories: Antibiotic allosteric mTOR inhibitors (first generation), ATP-competitive mTOR inhibitors (second generation), mTOR/PI3K dual inhibitors (second generation) and other new mTOR inhibitors (third generation). In this article, these four categories of mTOR inhibitors and their structures, properties and some clinical researches will be introduced. Among them, we focus on the structure of mTOR inhibitors and try to analyze the structure-activity relationship. mTOR inhibitors are classified according to their chemical structure and their contents are introduced systematically. Moreover, some natural products that have direct or indirect mTOR inhibitory activities are introduced together. In this article, we analyzed the target, binding mode and structure-activity relationship of each generation of mTOR inhibitors and proposed two hypothetic scaffolds (the inverted-Y-shape scaffold and the C-shape scaffold) for the second generation of mTOR inhibitors. These findings may provide some help or reference for drug designing, drug modification or the future development of mTOR inhibitor.

Potential new therapy of Rapalink-1, a new generation mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor, against sunitinib-resistant renal cell carcinoma

Sunitinib, a multitargeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor including vascular endothelial growth factor, has been widely used as a first-line treatment against metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). However, mRCC often acquires resistance to sunitinib, rendering it difficult to treat with this agent. Recently, Rapalink-1, a drug that links rapamycin and the mTOR kinase inhibitor MLN0128, has been developed with excellent therapeutic effects against breast cancer cells carrying mTOR resistance mutations. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo therapeutic efficacy of Rapalink-1 against renal cell carcinoma (RCC) compared to temsirolimus, which is commonly used as a small molecule inhibitor of mTOR and is a derivative of rapamycin. In comparison with temsirolimus, Rapalink-1 showed significantly greater effects against proliferation, migration, invasion and cFolony formation in sunitinib-naïve RCC cells. Inhibition was achieved through suppression of the phosphorylation of substrates in the mTOR signal pathway, such as p70S6K, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) and AKT. In addition, Rapalink-1 had greater tumor suppressive effects than temsirolimus against the sunitinib-resistant 786-o cell line (SU-R 786-o), which we had previously established, as well as 3 additional SU-R cell lines established here. RNA sequencing showed that Rapalink-1 suppressed not only the mTOR signaling pathway but also a part of the MAPK signaling pathway, the ErbB signaling pathway and ABC transporters that were associated with resistance to several drugs. Our study suggests the possibility of a new treatment option for patients with RCC that is either sunitinib-sensitive or sunitinib-resistant.

mTOR signaling intervention by Torin1 and XL388 in the insular cortex alleviates neuropathic pain

Signaling by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a kinase regulator of protein synthesis, has been implicated in the development of chronic pain. The mTOR comprises two distinct protein complexes, mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTORC2. Although effective inhibitors of mTORC1 and C2 have been developed, studies on the effect of these inhibitors related to pain modulation are still lacking. This study was conducted to determine the inhibitory effects of Torin1 and XL388 in an animal model of neuropathic pain. Seven days after neuropathic surgery, Torin1 or XL388 were microinjected into the insular cortex (IC) of nerve-injured animals and behavioral changes were assessed. Administration of Torin1 or XL388 into the IC significantly increased mechanical thresholds and reduced mechanical allodynia. At the immunoblotting results, Torin1 and XL388 significantly reduced phosphorylation of mTOR, 4E-BP1, p70S6K, and PKCα, without affecting Akt. These results strongly suggest that Torin1 and XL388 may attenuate neuropathic pain via inhibition of mTORC1 and mTORC2 in the IC.

Therapeutic Use of mTOR Inhibitors in Renal Diseases: Advances, Drawbacks, and Challenges

The mammalian (or mechanistic) target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway has a key role in the regulation of a variety of biological processes pivotal for cellular life, aging, and death. Impaired activity of mTOR complexes (mTORC1/mTORC2), particularly mTORC1 overactivation, has been implicated in a plethora of age-related disorders, including human renal diseases. Since the discovery of rapamycin (or sirolimus), more than four decades ago, advances in our understanding of how mTOR participates in renal physiological and pathological mechanisms have grown exponentially, due to both preclinical studies in animal models with genetic modification of some mTOR components as well as due to evidence coming from the clinical experience. The main clinical indication of rapamycin is as immunosuppressive therapy for the prevention of allograft rejection, namely, in renal transplantation. However, considering the central participation of mTOR in the pathogenesis of other renal disorders, the use of rapamycin and its analogs meanwhile developed (rapalogues) everolimus and temsirolimus has been viewed as a promising pharmacological strategy. This article critically reviews the use of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases. Firstly, we briefly overview the mTOR components and signaling as well as the pharmacological armamentarium targeting the mTOR pathway currently available or in the research and development stages. Thereafter, we revisit the mTOR pathway in renal physiology to conclude with the advances, drawbacks, and challenges regarding the use of mTOR inhibitors, in a translational perspective, in four classes of renal diseases: kidney transplantation, polycystic kidney diseases, renal carcinomas, and diabetic nephropathy.

Emodin and rhein decrease levels of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in human pancreatic cancer cells and attenuate cancer cachexia in athymic mice carrying these cells

The transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) consists of oxygen-sensitive HIF-1α and constitutive HIF-1β. HIF-1α is undetectable in normal cells, but cancer cells frequently express HIF-1α to support their growth, angiogenesis, and high glycolysis (also known as the Warburg effect). The Warburg effect in cancer cells increases energy expenditure and thus participates in cancer-induced metabolic disorder, cancer cachexia. In the present study, we investigated whether two components of Rheum palmatum, emodin and rhein, inhibited HIF-1α expression in human pancreatic cancer cells and whether the inhibiting effect, if any, attenuated cancer cachexia. Using Western blotting, we demonstrated that emodin and rhein decreased HIF-1α expression in MiaPaCa2 and four other human pancreatic cancer cell lines. We also examined HIF-1α expression when MiaPaCa2 cells were exposed to PX-478, noscapine, and phenethyl isothiocyanate, as these compounds were known to inhibit HIF-1α expression in different cancer cells. PX-478 and noscapine inhibited HIF-1α expression to a less extent than emodin and rhein, and phenethyl isothiocyanate did not inhibit HIF-1α expression in tested concentrations. We obtained evidence that emodin and rhein decreased HIF-1α by decreasing its biosynthesis but not gene transcription or protein stability. When MiaPaCa2 cells were implanted in athymic mice, emodin and rhein inhibited cancer-cell growth and HIF-1α expression. In these athymic mice, emodin and rhein also attenuated two pathological constituents of cancer cachexia, namely high hepatic gluconeogenesis and skeletal-muscle proteolysis. In conclusion, emodin and rhein decrease pancreatic cancer cell's growth and HIF-1α expression and attenuate cancer cachexia in the athymic mice carrying the cancer cells.