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Lippi I, Perondi F, Ghiselli G, Santini S, Habermaass V, Marchetti V. Anemia in Dogs with Acute Kidney Injury. Vet Sci 2024; 11:212. [PMID: 38787184 PMCID: PMC11126032 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11050212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Anemia is a well-known complication in CKD dogs, but its frequency in AKI dogs has been poorly investigated. The aim of the present study was to retrospectively evaluate frequency, degree of severity, and regeneration rate of anemia in relation to IRIS grade, etiology, therapy, and outcome. Medical records of dogs (2017-2023) with historical, laboratory, and ultrasound findings consistent with AKI were retrospectively reviewed. According to etiology, AKI was classified as ischemic/inflammatory (IS), infectious (INF), nephrotoxic (NEP), obstructive (OBS), and unknown (UK). AKI dogs were also classified according to therapeutical management (medical vs. hemodialysis), survival to discharge (survivors vs. non-survivors). Anemia was defined as HCT < 37% and classified as mild (HCT 30-37%), moderate (HCT 20-29%), severe (13-19%), or very severe (<13%). Anemia was classified as microcytic (MCV < 61 fL), normocytic (61 and 73 fL), and macrocytic (>73 fL). Anemia was considered hypochromic (MCHC< 32 g/dL), normochromic (32 and 38 g/dL), and hyperchromic (>38 g/dL). Regeneration rate was considered absent (RET ≤ 60,000/μL), mild 61,000-150,000/μL), and moderate (>150,000/μL). A total of 120 AKI dogs were included in the study, and anemia was found in 86/120 dogs (72%). The severity of anemia was mild in 32/86 dogs (37%), moderate in 40/86 dogs (47%), severe in 11/86 dogs (13%), and very severe in 3/86 (3%). Anemia was normochromic in 71/86 dogs (83%), hyperchromic in 12/86 dogs (14%), and hypochromic in 3/86 dogs (3%). Normocytic anemia was present in 56/86 dogs (65%), microcytic anemia in 27/86 dogs (31%), and macrocytic anemia in 3/86 dogs (4%). Non-regenerative anemia was found in 76/86 dogs (88%). The frequency of anemia increased significantly (p < 0.0001) with the progression of IRIS grade, although no significant difference in the severity of anemia was found among the IRIS grades. The frequency of non-regenerative forms of anemia was significantly higher than regenerative forms (p < 0.0001) in all IRIS grades. In our population of AKI dogs, anemia was a very frequent finding, in agreement with current findings in human nephrology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Lippi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (F.P.); (G.G.); (S.S.); (V.H.); (V.M.)
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Research progress on the relationship between IS and kidney disease and its complications. Int Urol Nephrol 2022; 54:2881-2890. [PMID: 35488145 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-022-03209-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Indoxyl sulphate (IS) a representative uraemic toxin in the blood of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Its accumulation may be closely related to CKD and the increasing morbidity and mortality of the disease's related complications. Timely and effective detection of the IS level and efficient clearance of IS may effectively prevent the progression of CKD and its related complications. Therefore, this article summarizes the research progress of IS related, including IS in CKD and its associated complications including chronic kidney disease, chronic kidney disease with cardiovascular disease, renal anemia, bone mineral metabolic disease and neuropsychiatric disorders, looking for IS accurate rapid detection methods, and explore the efficient treatment to reduce blood levels of indole phenol sulphate.
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What If Not All Metabolites from the Uremic Toxin Generating Pathways Are Toxic? A Hypothesis. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030221. [PMID: 35324718 PMCID: PMC8953523 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The topic of uremic toxicity has received broad attention from the nephrological community over the past few decades. An aspect that is much less often considered is the possibility that the metabolic pathways that generate uremic toxins also may produce molecules that benefit body functions. Here, we discuss this dualism based on the example of tryptophan-derived metabolites, which comprise elements that are mainly toxic, such as indoxyl sulfate, kynurenine and kynurenic acid, but also beneficial compounds, such as indole, melatonin and indole-3-propionic acid, and ambivalent (beneficial for some aspects and harmful for others) compounds such as serotonin. This dualism can also be perceived at the level of the main receptor of the tryptophan-derived metabolites, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), which has also been linked to both harm and benefit. We hypothesize that these beneficial effects are the reason why uremic toxin generation remained preserved throughout evolution. This duality is also not unique for the tryptophan-derived metabolites, and in this broader context we discuss the remote sensing and signaling theory (RSST). The RSST proposes that transporters (e.g., organic anion transporter 1—OAT1; ATP-binding cassette transporter G—ABCG2) and drug metabolizing enzymes form a large network of proteins interacting to promote small molecule remote communication at the inter-organ (e.g., gut–liver–heart–brain–kidney) and inter-organismal (e.g., gut microbe–host) levels. These small molecules include gut microbe-derived uremic toxins as well as beneficial molecules such as those discussed here. We emphasize that this positive side of uremic metabolite production needs more attention, and that this dualism especially needs to be considered when assessing and conceiving of therapeutic interventions. These homeostatic considerations are central to the RSST and suggest that interventions be aimed at preserving or restoring the balance between positive and negative components rather than eliminating them all without distinction.
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Lu CL, Zheng CM, Lu KC, Liao MT, Wu KL, Ma MC. Indoxyl-Sulfate-Induced Redox Imbalance in Chronic Kidney Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060936. [PMID: 34207816 PMCID: PMC8228088 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of the uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate (IS) induces target organ damage in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, and causes complications including cardiovascular diseases, renal osteodystrophy, muscle wasting, and anemia. IS stimulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in CKD, which impairs glomerular filtration by a direct cytotoxic effect on the mesangial cells. IS further reduces antioxidant capacity in renal proximal tubular cells and contributes to tubulointerstitial injury. IS-induced ROS formation triggers the switching of vascular smooth muscular cells to the osteoblastic phenotype, which induces cardiovascular risk. Low-turnover bone disease seen in early CKD relies on the inhibitory effects of IS on osteoblast viability and differentiation, and osteoblastic signaling via the parathyroid hormone. Excessive ROS and inflammatory cytokine releases caused by IS directly inhibit myocyte growth in muscle wasting via myokines’ effects. Moreover, IS triggers eryptosis via ROS-mediated oxidative stress, and elevates hepcidin levels in order to prevent iron flux in circulation in renal anemia. Thus, IS-induced oxidative stress underlies the mechanisms in CKD-related complications. This review summarizes the underlying mechanisms of how IS mediates oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of CKD’s complications. Furthermore, we also discuss the potential role of oral AST-120 in attenuating IS-mediated oxidative stress after gastrointestinal adsorption of the IS precursor indole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Lin Lu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University Hospital, New Taipei 24352, Taiwan;
- School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei 242062, Taiwan
| | - Cai-Mei Zheng
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan;
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Taipei Medical University Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei 23561, Taiwan
- Research Center of Urology and Kidney, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Cheng Lu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, New Taipei 23142, Taiwan;
| | - Min-Tser Liao
- Department of Pediatrics, Taoyuan Armed Forces General Hospital, Taoyuan 32551, Taiwan;
- National Defense Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei 114202, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Lin Wu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Taoyuan Armed Forces General Hospital, Taoyuan 32551, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (K.-L.W.); (M.-C.M.)
| | - Ming-Chieh Ma
- School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei 242062, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (K.-L.W.); (M.-C.M.)
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Zeolite Composite Nanofiber Mesh for Indoxyl Sulfate Adsorption toward Wearable Blood Purification Devices. FIBERS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/fib9060037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
A nanofiber mesh was prepared for the adsorption of indoxyl sulfate (IS), a toxin associated with chronic kidney disease. Removing IS is highly demanded for efficient blood purification. The objective of this study is to develop a zeolite composite nanofiber mesh to remove IS efficiently. Eight zeolites with different properties were used for IS adsorption, where a zeolite with a pore size of 7 Å, H+ cations, and a silica to aluminum ratio of 240 mol/mol exhibited the highest adsorption capacity. This was primarily attributed to its suitable silica to aluminum ratio. The zeolites were incorporated in biocompatible poly (ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) (EVOH) nanofibers, and a zeolite composite nanofiber mesh was successfully fabricated via electrospinning. The nanofiber mesh exhibited an IS adsorption capacity of 107 μg/g, while the adsorption capacity by zeolite increased from 208 μg/g in powder form to 386 μg/g when dispersed in the mesh. This also led to an increase in cell viability from 86% to 96%. These results demonstrated that this zeolite composite nanofiber mesh can be safely and effectively applied in wearable blood purification devices.
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Fei M, Wen XQ, Yu ZL, Kang T, Wu WH, Ou ST. Roxadustat as treatment for a blood transfusion-dependent maintenance hemodialysis patient: A case report and review of literature. World J Clin Cases 2021; 9:3680-3688. [PMID: 34046470 PMCID: PMC8130086 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v9.i15.3680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) have revolutionized the therapeutic strategy for anemia in chronic kidney disease. However, some cases are resistant or hyporesponsive to ESAs. Roxadustat is an oral hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor that stimulates erythropoiesis and regulates iron metabolism. Here, we describe a hemodialysis patient with refractory anemia who did not respond to traditional treatments and depended on blood transfusion for more than 1 year. After applying Roxadustat, the patient’s anemia improved significantly.
CASE SUMMARY A 44-year-old man was diagnosed with uremia accompanied by severe anemia with a hemoglobin (Hb) level ranging from 30-40 g/L. His anemia did not improve after sufficient dialysis or high doses of active ESAs; other causes of anemia were excluded. The patient required approximately 600-1000 mL of red blood cell suspension every 15-30 d for more than 1 year. After accepting Roxadustat therapy, the patient’s anemia symptoms improved significantly; his Hb level gradually increased to 50 g/L, and no further blood transfusions were administered. His Hb level reached 69 g/L by the 34th week. Although a Hb level of 60-70 g/L cannot be considered satisfactory, he no longer required blood transfusions and his quality of life was substantially improved. Roxadustat showed good efficacy and safety in this case.
CONCLUSION Roxadustat represents an innovative and effective agent for the clinical treatment of renal anemia caused by multiple complex factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Fei
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Xiang-Qiong Wen
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Zhao-Lan Yu
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Ting Kang
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Wei-Hua Wu
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
| | - San-Tao Ou
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Nephropathy, Luzhou 646000, Sichuan Province, China
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Maxwell KD, Chuang J, Chaudhry M, Nie Y, Bai F, Sodhi K, Liu J, Shapiro JI. The potential role of Na-K-ATPase and its signaling in the development of anemia in chronic kidney disease. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2020; 320:F234-F242. [PMID: 33356956 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00244.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the most prominent diseases affecting our population today. According to the Factsheet published by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it effects approximately 15% of the total population in the United States in some way, shape, or form. Within the myriad of symptomatology associated with CKD, one of the most prevalent factors in terms of affecting quality of life is anemia. Anemia of CKD cannot be completely attributed to one mechanism or cause, but rather has a multifactorial origin in the pathophysiology of CKD. While briefly summarizing well-documented risk factors, this review, as a hypothesis, aims to explore the possible role of Na-K-ATPase and its signaling function [especially recent identified reactive oxygen species (ROS) amplification function] in the interwoven mechanisms of development of the anemia of CKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Maxwell
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Justin Chuang
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Muhammad Chaudhry
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Ying Nie
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Fang Bai
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Komal Sodhi
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia.,Department of Medicine, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Jiang Liu
- Department of Biomsedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
| | - Joseph I Shapiro
- Department of Medicine, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to highlight the association between gut microbiome and cardiovascular disease (CVD) with emphasis on the possible molecular mechanisms by which how gut microbiome contributes to CVD. RECENT FINDINGS Increasingly, the roles of gut microbiome in cardiovascular health and disease have gained much attention. Most of the investigations focus on how the gut dysbiosis contributes to CVD risk factors and which gut microbial-derived metabolites mediate such effects. SUMMARY In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of gut microbiome contributing to CVD, which include gut microbes translocalization to aortic artery because of gut barrier defect to initiate inflammation and microbial-derived metabolites inducing inflammation-signaling pathway and renal insufficiency. Specifically, we categorize beneficial and deleterious microbial-derived metabolites in cardiovascular health. We also summarize recent findings in the gut microbiome modulation of drug efficacy in treatment of CVD and the microbiome mechanisms by which how physical exercise ameliorates cardiovascular health. Gut microbiome has become an essential component of cardiovascular research and a crucial consideration factor in cardiovascular health and disease.
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Noce A, Marrone G, Di Daniele F, Ottaviani E, Wilson Jones G, Bernini R, Romani A, Rovella V. Impact of Gut Microbiota Composition on Onset and Progression of Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases. Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11051073. [PMID: 31091761 PMCID: PMC6567014 DOI: 10.3390/nu11051073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, mounting scientific evidence has emerged regarding the evaluation of the putative correlation between the gut microbiota composition and the presence of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and arterial hypertension. The aim of this narrative review is to examine the current literature with respect to the relationship between intestinal dysbiosis and the insurgence/progression of chronic NCDs, analyzing the physiopathological mechanisms that can induce microbiota modification in the course of these pathologies, and the possible effect induced by microbiota alteration upon disease onset. Therapy based on probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, and fecal microbiota transplant can represent a useful therapeutic tool, as has been highlighted on animal studies. To this moment, clinical studies that intended to demonstrate the beneficial effect induced by this kind of oral supplementation on the gut microbiota composition, and subsequent amelioration of signs and symptoms of chronic NCDs have been conducted on limited sample populations for a limited follow-up period. Therefore, to fully evaluate the therapeutic value of this kind of intervention, it would be ideal to design ample population; randomized clinical trials with a lengthy follow up period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Noce
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giulia Marrone
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
- PhD School of Applied Medical- Surgical Sciences, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesca Di Daniele
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Eleonora Ottaviani
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Georgia Wilson Jones
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberta Bernini
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Annalisa Romani
- PHYTOLAB-DISIA-Department of Informatics, Statistics and Applications G. Parenti, University of Florence, Viale Morgagni, 59-50134 Florence, Italy and QuMAP-PIN-Piazza Giovanni Ciardi, 25, 59100 Prato (PO), Italy.
| | - Valentina Rovella
- UOC of Internal Medicine-Center of Hypertension and Nephrology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome, via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy.
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Liu WC, Tomino Y, Lu KC. Impacts of Indoxyl Sulfate and p-Cresol Sulfate on Chronic Kidney Disease and Mitigating Effects of AST-120. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10090367. [PMID: 30208594 PMCID: PMC6162782 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10090367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Uremic toxins, such as indoxyl sulfate (IS) and p-cresol, or p-cresyl sulfate (PCS), are markedly accumulated in the organs of chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. These toxins can induce inflammatory reactions and enhance oxidative stress, prompting glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis, to aggravate the decline of renal function. Consequently, uremic toxins play an important role in the worsening of renal and cardiovascular functions. Furthermore, they destroy the quantity and quality of bone. Oral sorbent AST-120 reduces serum levels of uremic toxins in CKD patients by adsorbing the precursors of IS and PCS generated by amino acid metabolism in the intestine. Accordingly, AST-120 decreases the serum IS levels and reduces the production of reactive oxygen species by endothelial cells, to impede the subsequent oxidative stress. This slows the progression of cardiovascular and renal diseases and improves bone metabolism in CKD patients. Although large-scale studies showed no obvious benefits from adding AST-120 to the standard therapy for CKD patients, subsequent sporadic studies may support its use. This article summarizes the mechanisms of the uremic toxins, IS, and PCS, and discusses the multiple effects of AST-120 in CKD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Chih Liu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tungs' Taichung Metro Harbor Hospital, Taichung City 435, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Yasuhiko Tomino
- Asian Pacific Renal Research Promotion Office, Medical Corporation SHOWAKAI, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan.
| | - Kuo-Cheng Lu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Fu-Jen Catholic University Hospital, School of Medicine, Fu-Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 243, Taiwan.
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Indoxyl Sulfate, a Uremic Toxin, Stimulates Reactive Oxygen Species Production and Erythrocyte Cell Death Supposedly by an Organic Anion Transporter 2 (OAT2) and NADPH Oxidase Activity-Dependent Pathways. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10070280. [PMID: 29976888 PMCID: PMC6071035 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10070280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
It is hypothesized that the uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate (IS) plays a role in the pathogenesis of renal anemia. To further explore that hypothesis, we examined the effects of IS on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), and erythrocyte death (eryptosis) in red blood cells (RBC) from healthy controls (CON-RBC) and hemodialyzed patients (HD-RBC), respectively. RBC were incubated either in either TRIS-Glc-BSA buffer or IS at concentrations of 0.01, 0.09, and 0.17 mM, respectively. We measured ROS generation (expressed as % of DCFH-DA positive RBC), eryptosis (expressed as % of annexin-V positive RBC), and GSH levels after 6, 12, and 24 h. When incubated in buffer, ROS production was approximately seven-fold higher at all time points HD-RBC when compared to CON-RBC. Incubation with IS increased ROS production in CON-RBS dose-dependently up to 10-fold. Eryptosis in buffer-incubated HD-RBC was up to seven-fold higher as compared to COB-RBC. Incubation of CON-RBC with IS increased the eryptosis rate dose-dependently up to 6-fold. Pretreatment of CON-RBC with the organic anion transporter 2 (OAT2) specific inhibitor ketoprofen or with NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium-Cl blunted the IS effect on both ROS production and eryptosis induction. While GSH levels in HD-RBC were reduced when compared to CON-RBC, they were not affected by IS incubation. In summary, IS increases ROS generation and eryptosis in CON-RBC by an activity dependent of the IS influx through OAT2, and NADPH oxidase activity-dependent, and a GSH-independent mechanism. These findings lend support to a putative role of IS in the pathogenesis of renal anemia.
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