FOXM1 facilitates gastric cancer cell migration and invasion by inducing Cathepsin D

Gastric coinfection with thiopeptide-positive Cutibacterium acnes decreases FOXM1 and pro-inflammatory biomarker expression in a murine model of Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric cancer

IMPORTANCE

H. pylori infects half of the world population and is the leading cause of gastric cancer. We previously demonstrated that gastric cancer risk is associated with gastric microbiota. Specifically, gastric urease-positive Staphylococcus epidermidis and Streptococcus salivarius had contrasting effects on H. pylori-associated gastric pathology and immune responses in germ-free INS-GAS mice. As gastritis progresses to gastric cancer, the oncogenic transcription factor Foxm1 becomes increasingly expressed. In this study, we evaluated the gastric commensal C. acnes, certain strains of which produce thiopeptides that directly inhibit FOXM1. Thiopeptide-positive C. acnes was isolated from Nicaraguan patient gastric biopsies and inoculated into germ-free INS-GAS mice with H. pylori. We, therefore, asked whether coinfection with C. acnes expressing thiopeptide and H. pylori would decrease gastric Foxm1 expression and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA and protein levels. Our study supports the growing literature that specific non-H. pylori gastric bacteria affect inflammatory and cancer biomarkers in H. pylori pathogenesis.

Invasive FoxM1 phosphorylated by PLK1 induces the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages to promote immune escape and metastasis, amplified by IFITM1

BACKGROUND

Understanding the mechanism behind immune cell plasticity in cancer metastasis is crucial for identifying key regulators. Previously we found that mitotic factors regulate epithelial-mesenchymal transition, but how these factors convert to metastatic players in the tumor microenvironment (TME) is not fully understood.

METHODS

The clinical importance of mitotic factors was analyzed by heatmap analysis, a KM plot, and immunohistochemistry in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients. Immunoprecipitation, LC-MS/MS, kinase assay, and site-directed mutagenesis were performed for the interaction and phosphorylation. A tail-vein injection mouse model, Transwell-based 3D culture, microarray analysis, coculture with monocytes, and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were used to elucidate the function of phosphorylated FoxM1 in metastasis of TME.

RESULTS

The phosphorylated FoxM1 at Ser25 by PLK1 acquires the reprogramming ability to stimulate the invasive traits in cancer and influence immune cell plasticity. This invasive form of p-FoxM1 upregulates the expression of IL1A/1B, VEGFA, and IL6 by direct activation, recruiting monocytes and promoting the polarization of M2d-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Upregulation of PD-L1 in LUAD having phosphomimetic FoxM1 facilitates immune evasion. In invasive LUAD with phosphomimetic FoxM1, IFITM1 is the most highly expressed through the activation of the STING-TBK1-IRF3 signaling, which enhances FoxM1-mediated signaling. Clinically, higher expression of FOXM1, PLK1, and IFITM1 is inversely correlated with the survival rate of advanced LUAD patients, providing a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of LUAD.

CONCLUSION

FoxM1-based therapy would be a potential therapeutic strategy for LUAD to reduce TAM polarization, immune escape, and metastasis, since FoxM1 functions as a genetic reprogramming factor reinforcing LUAD malignancy in the TME.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related long noncoding RNAs in gastric carcinoma

As an evolutionarily phenotypic conversion program, the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been implicated in tumour deterioration and has facilitated the metastatic ability of cancer cells via enhancing migration and invasion. Gastric cancer (GC) remains a frequently diagnosed non-skin malignancy globally. Most GC-associated mortality can be attributed to metastasis. Recent studies have shown that EMT-related long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a critical role in GC progression and GC cell motility. In addition, lncRNAs are associated with EMT-related transcription factors and signalling pathways. In the present review, we comprehensively described the EMT-inducing lncRNA molecular mechanisms and functional perspectives of EMT-inducing lncRNAs in GC progression. Taken together, the statements of this review provided a clinical implementation in identifying lncRNAs as potential therapeutic targets for advanced GC.

Itch and autophagy-mediated NF-κB activation contributes to inhibition of cathepsin D-induced sensitizing effect on anticancer drugs

Inhibition of cathepsin D (Cat D) sensitizes cancer cells to anticancer drugs via RNF183-mediated downregulation of Bcl-xL expression. Although NF-κB activation is involved in the upregulation of RNF183 expression, the molecular mechanism of NF-κB activation by Cat D inhibition is unknown. We conducted this study to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying Cat D-mediated NF-κB activation. Interestingly, Cat D inhibition-induced IκB degradation in an autophagy-dependent manner. Knockdown of autophagy-related genes (ATG7 and Beclin1) and lysosome inhibitors (chloroquine and bafilomycin A1) blocked IκB degradation via Cat D inhibition. Itch induced K63-linked ubiquitination of IκB and then modulated the protein stability of IκB by Cat D inhibition. Inhibition of Cat D-mediated Itch activation was modulated by the JNK signaling pathway, and phosphorylated Itch could bind to IκB, resulting in polyubiquitination of IκB. Additionally, inhibition of Cat D increased autophagy flux via activation of the LKB1-AMPK-ULK1 pathway. Therefore, our results suggested that Cat D inhibition activated NF-κB signaling via degradation of autophagy-dependent IκB, which is associated with the upregulation of RNF183, an E3 ligase of Bcl-xL. Cat D inhibition enhances TRAIL-induced apoptosis through Bcl-xL degradation via upregulation of RNF183.

Cathepsin D as a potential therapeutic target to enhance anticancer drug-induced apoptosis via RNF183-mediated destabilization of Bcl-xL in cancer cells

Cathepsin D (Cat D) is well known for its roles in metastasis, angiogenesis, proliferation, and carcinogenesis in cancer. Despite Cat D being a promising target in cancer cells, effects and underlying mechanism of its inhibition remain unclear. Here, we investigated the plausibility of using Cat D inhibition as an adjuvant or sensitizer for enhancing anticancer drug-induced apoptosis. Inhibition of Cat D markedly enhanced anticancer drug-induced apoptosis in human carcinoma cell lines and xenograft models. The inhibition destabilized Bcl-xL through upregulation of the expression of RNF183, an E3 ligase of Bcl-xL, via NF-κB activation. Furthermore, Cat D inhibition increased the proteasome activity, which is another important factor in the degradation of proteins. Cat D inhibition resulted in p62-dependent activation of Nrf2, which increased the expression of proteasome subunits (PSMA5 and PSMB5), and thereby, the proteasome activity. Overall, Cat D inhibition sensitized cancer cells to anticancer drugs through the destabilization of Bcl-xL. Furthermore, human renal clear carcinoma (RCC) tissues revealed a positive correlation between Cat D and Bcl-xL expression, whereas RNF183 and Bcl-xL expression indicated inverse correlation. Our results suggest that inhibition of Cat D is promising as an adjuvant or sensitizer for enhancing anticancer drug-induced apoptosis in cancer cells.

Wnt/β-Catenin Target Genes in Colon Cancer Metastasis: The Special Case of L1CAM

Simple Summary

The Wnt/β-catenin cell–cell signaling pathway is one of the most basic and highly conserved pathways for intercellular communications regulating key steps during development, differentiation, and cancer. In colorectal cancer (CRC), in particular, aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is believed to be responsible for perpetuating the disease from the very early stages of cancer development. A large number of downstream target genes of β-catenin-T-cell factor (TCF), including oncogenes, were detected as regulators of CRC development. In this review, we will summarize studies mainly on one such target gene, the L1CAM (L1) cell adhesion receptor, that is selectively induced in invasive and metastatic CRC cells and in regenerating cells of the intestine following injury. We will describe studies on the genes activated when the levels of L1 are increased in CRC cells and their effectiveness in propagating CRC development. These downstream targets of L1-signaling can serve in diagnosis and may provide additional targets for CRC therapy.

Abstract

Cell adhesion to neighboring cells is a fundamental biological process in multicellular organisms that is required for tissue morphogenesis. A tight coordination between cell–cell adhesion, signaling, and gene expression is a characteristic feature of normal tissues. Changes, and often disruption of this coordination, are common during invasive and metastatic cancer development. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is an excellent model for studying the role of adhesion-mediated signaling in colorectal cancer (CRC) invasion and metastasis, because β-catenin has a dual role in the cell; it is a major adhesion linker of cadherin transmembrane receptors to the cytoskeleton and, in addition, it is also a key transducer of Wnt signaling to the nucleus, where it acts as a co-transcriptional activator of Wnt target genes. Hyperactivation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is a common feature in the majority of CRC patients. We found that the neural cell adhesion receptor L1CAM (L1) is a target gene of β-catenin signaling and is induced in carcinoma cells of CRC patients, where it plays an important role in CRC metastasis. In this review, we will discuss studies on β-catenin target genes activated during CRC development (in particular, L1), the signaling pathways affected by L1, and the role of downstream target genes activated by L1 overexpression, especially those that are also part of the intestinal stem cell gene signature. As intestinal stem cells are highly regulated by Wnt signaling and are believed to also play major roles in CRC progression, unravelling the mechanisms underlying the regulation of these genes will shed light on both normal intestinal homeostasis and the development of invasive and metastatic CRC.

Prognostic role and therapeutic susceptibility of cathepsin in various types of solid tumor and leukemia: A systematic review

Cathepsins (CTSs) are multifunctional proteins that can play prominent roles in cancer progression and metastasis. In this systematic review, we compared the prognosis of CTS subtypes overexpression in leukemia and solid tumors, and investigated the effect of different factors on CTS prognosis. We systematically searched published articles indexed in PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane library, ISI Web of Science, and EmBase databases from February 2000 until January 2020. Among the selected leukemia and solid tumors studies, overexpression of CTS subtypes in newly diagnosed and treated patients were with poor prognosis in 43 studies (79.6%) and with good prognosis in 9 studies (16.6%). However, there were 2 studies (3.8%) with either good or poor prognosis, depending on conditions and caner stage and host cell. The relation between CTS and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) in leukemia and solid tumors was mentioned in 7 studies (13%). Overexpression of CTS subtypes in all new case patients had contributed to the induction of poor prognosis. It seems that CTS subtypes, based on the type of cancer and its stage, the type of host cells, and the probable relation with HLA, breed good or poor prognosis in patients with cancer. Therefore, monitoring the overexpression of CTS subtypes and determining the effect of each of these factors on CTS prognosis could be helpful in predicting cancer prognosis both in newly diagnosed or under treatment patients. They could also be useful in finding ways for improving the efficiency of contemporary therapeutic strategies in various types of leukemia and solid tumors.

Praeruptorin B Mitigates the Metastatic Ability of Human Renal Carcinoma Cells through Targeting CTSC and CTSV Expression

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common adult kidney cancer, and accounts for 85% of all cases of kidney cancers worldwide. Praeruptorin B (Pra-B) is a bioactive constituent of Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn and exhibits several pharmacological activities, including potent antitumor effects. However, the anti-RCC effects of Pra-B and their underlying mechanisms are unclear; therefore, we explored the effects of Pra-B on RCC cells in this study. We found that Pra-B nonsignificantly influenced the cell viability of human RCC cell lines 786-O and ACHN at a dose of less than 30 μM for 24 h treatment. Further study revealed that Pra-B potently inhibited the migration and invasion of 786-O and ACHN cells, as well as downregulated the mRNA and protein expression of cathepsin C (CTSC) and cathepsin V (CTSV) of 786-O and ACHN cells. Mechanistically, Pra-B also reduced the protein levels of phospho (p)-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), p-mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK), and p-extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) in RCC cells. In addition, Pra-B treatment inhibited the effect of EGF on the upregulation of EGFR–MEK–ERK, CTSC and CTSV expression, cellular migration, and invasion of 786-O cells. Our findings are the first to demonstrate that Pra-B can reduce the migration and invasion ability of human RCC cells through suppressing the EGFR-MEK-ERK signaling pathway and subsequently downregulating CTSC and CTSV. This evidence suggests that Pra-B can be developed as an effective antimetastatic agent for the treatment of RCC.

FOXM1: a potential therapeutic target in human solid cancers

Introduction: FOXM1 is one of the most frequently overexpressed proteins in human solid cancers. Here, we discuss novel direct targets of FOXM1 as well as new pathways involving FOXM1, through which this protein exerts its oncogenic activity.Areas covered: We give a detailed review of FOXM1 transcriptional targets involved in 16 different types of human cancer as published in the literature in the last 5 years. We also discuss a novel positive feedback loop between FOXM1 and AKT - both well-established master regulators of cancer.Expert opinion: Despite the discovery of several FOXM1 inhibitors over the years (by our team and others), their therapeutic use is limited by their adverse off-target effects.Newly-discovered proteins regulated by FOXM1 present a promising alternative approach to target its pro-cancer activity. In addition, targeting regulating proteins that take part in the positive feedback loop between FOXM1/AKT has the double advantage of suppressing both, and can lead to developing novel anti-cancer drugs.

FOXM1 functions collaboratively with PLAU to promote gastric cancer progression

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the main mortality cause worldwide. Previously, we found Forkhead box protein (FOXM1) or Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (PLAU) are independent prognostic markers of GC. This study aims to explore the combining prognostic efficacy and the potential insights underlying additive effect of FOXM1 to PLAU in GC progression through in-silico analyses. Method: The expression of FOXM1 and PLAU were profiled in 33 cancer types using public data. A merged GC expression dataset containing 598 samples was used for evaluating prognostic significance of FOXM1/PLAU. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was performed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying FOXM1/PLAU promoted GC progression. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) was used for analyzing the association between FOXM1/PLAU and tumor immune infiltration. Genomic and proteomic differences between FOXM1+PLAU+ and FOXM1-PLAU- groups were also computed using TCGA GC data. Drugs targeting FOXM1/PLAU associated gene expression pattern was analyzed using LINCs database. Results: FOXM1 and PLAU are overexpressed in 17/33 cancer types including GC. Kaplan-Meier analyses indicate that the FOXM1+PLAU+ subgroup have the worst prognosis, while FOXM1-PLAU- subgroup have the best survival. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that FOXM1+PLAU+ associated genes are enriched in TGF-beta, DNA repair and drug resistance signaling pathways; FOXM1 and PLAU expression are negatively correlated with tumor immune infiltration. Genomic and proteomic differences between FOXM1+PLAU+ and FOXM1-PLAU- groups were presented. Data mining from LINCs suggested several chemicals or drugs that could target the gene expression pattern of FOXM1+PLAU+ patients. Conclusion: FOXM1+PLAU+ can serve as effective prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for GC. Due to the additive effect of these two genes, screening for drugs or chemicals that targeting the expression patterns PLAU+FOXM1+ subgroup may exert important clinical impact on GC management.

Increased expression of cathepsin D is required for L1-mediated colon cancer progression

Hyperactivation of Wnt/β-catenin target genes is considered a key step in human colorectal cancer (CRC) development. We previously identified the immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion receptor L1 as a target gene of β-catenin/TCF transactivation that is localized at the invasive edge of CRC tissue. Using gene arrays, we discovered a number of downstream target genes and signaling pathways conferred by L1 overexpression during colon cancer progression. Here, we have used a proteomic approach to identify proteins in the secretome of L1-overexpressing CRC cells and studied the role of the increase in the aspartate protease cathepsin D (CTSD) in L1-mediated colon cancer development. We found that in addition to the increase in CTSD in the secretome, the RNA and protein levels of CTSD were also induced by L1 in CRC cells. CTSD overexpression resulted in elevated proliferation under stress and increased motility, tumorigenesis and liver metastasis, although to a lesser extent than after L1-transfection. The suppression of endogenous CTSD in L1-expressing cells blocked the increase in the proliferative, motile, tumorigenic and metastatic ability of CRC cells. Enhancing Wnt/β-catenin signaling by the inhibition of GSK3β resulted in increased endogenous CTSD levels, suggesting the involvement of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in CTSD expression. In human CRC tissue, CTSD was detected in epithelial cells and in the stromal compartment at the more invasive areas of the tumor, but not in the normal mucosa, indicating that CTSD plays an essential role in CRC progression.

'Patchiness' and basic cancer research: unravelling the proteases

The recent developments in Cathepsin protease research have unveiled a number of key observations which are fundamental to further our understanding of normal cellular homeostasis and disease. By far, the most interesting and promising area of Cathepsin biology stems from how these proteins are linked to the fate of living cells through the phenomenon of Lysosomal Leakage and Lysosomal Membrane Permeabilisation. While extracellular Cathepsins are generally believed to be of central importance in tumour progression, through their ability to modulate the architecture of the Extracellular Matrix, intracellular Cathepsins have been established as being of extreme significance in mediating cell death through Apoptosis. With these two juxtaposed key research areas in mind, the focus of this review highlights recent advancements in how this fast-paced area of Cathepsin research has recently evolved in the context of their mechanistic regulation in cancer research. Abbreviations : ECM, Extracellular Matrix; MMP, Matrix Metalloproteases; LL, Lysosomal Leakage; LMP, Lysosomal Membrane Permeabilisation; LMA, Lysosomorphic Agents; BC, Breast Cancer; ASM, Acid Sphingomyelinase; TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; LAMP, Lysosomal Associated membrane Protein; PCD, Programmed Cell Death; PDAC, Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma; ROS, Reactive Oxygen Species; aa, amino acids.

Cathepsins: Potent regulators in carcinogenesis

Cathepsins (CTS) are mainly lysosomal acid hydrolases extensively involved in the prognosis of different diseases, and having a distinct role in tumor progression by regulating cell proliferation, autophagy, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. As all these processes conjunctively lead to cancer progression, their site-specific regulation might be beneficial for cancer treatment. CTS regulate activation of the proteolytic cascade and protein turnover, while extracellular CTS is involved in promoting extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis, thereby stimulating invasion and metastasis. Despite cancer regulation, the involvement of CTS in cellular adaptation toward chemotherapy and radiotherapy augments their therapeutic potential. However, lysosomal permeabilization mediated cytosolic translocation of CTS induces programmed cell death. This complex behavior of CTS generates the need to discuss the different aspects of CTS associated with cancer regulation. In this review, we mainly focused on the significance of each cathepsin in cancer signaling and their targeting which would provide noteworthy information in the context of cancer biology and therapeutics.

Penicillin‑binding protein 1A mutation‑positive Helicobacter pylori promotes epithelial‑mesenchymal transition in gastric cancer via the suppression of microRNA‑134

Evidence suggests that Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is not only the main cause of gastric cancer (GC), but is also closely associated with its metastasis. One of the major virulence factors in H. pylori is the cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA). With the growing proportion of amoxicillin-resistant H. pylori strains, the present study aimed to explore the effects of CagA- and penicillin-binding protein 1A (PBP1A) mutation-positive H. pylori (H. pylori_CagA+/P+) on GC cells, and its clinical significance. The clinical significance of H. pylori_CagA+/P+ infection was analyzed in patients with GC. In vitro, GC cells were infected with H. pylori_CagA+/P+ to investigate whether it was involved in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of SGC-7901 cells using immunofluorescence and western blot analysis. The results of clinical analysis demonstrated that, although CagA-negative H. pylori infection had no significant association with the characteristics of patients with GC, H. pylori_CagA+/P+ infection was significantly associated with various clinicopathological parameters, including invasion depth, lymphatic metastasis and distant metastasis. In vitro, the results indicated that H. pylori_CagA+/P+ promoted proliferation, invasion and EMT of SGC-7901 cells. MicroRNA (miR)-134 was downregulated in H. pylori_CagA+/P+ infected tissues compared with in those with H. pylori_CagA+/P- infection. miR-134 overexpression significantly reversed H. pylori_CagA+/P+ infection-associated cell proliferation, invasion and EMT. Furthermore, the results revealed that Forkhead box protein M1 (FoxM1) was a direct target of miR-134, and FoxM1 knockdown impeded H. pylori_CagA+/P+-induced EMT. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that miR-134 may suppress the proliferation, invasion and EMT of SGC-7901 cells by targeting FoxM1, and may serve a protective role in the process of H. pylori_CagA+/P+-induced GC. These findings may lead to an improved understanding of H. pylori_CagA+/P+-associated poor clinical characteristics in patients with GC.

Paired box 8 suppresses tumor angiogenesis and metastasis in gastric cancer through repression of FOXM1 via induction of microRNA-612

Background

Paired box 8 (PAX8) has been documented to be downregulated in gastric cancer. However, its biological function in this malignancy is poorly understood.

Methods

In the present work, we investigated the effects of PAX8 overexpression and knockdown on the aggressive phenotype of gastric cancer cells. We further checked the involvement of forkhead box M1 (FOXM1), a ubiquitously expressed oncogene that can facilitate gastric cancer progression, in the action of PAX8.

Results

Ectopic expression of PAX8 blocked the migration and invasion of both AGS and SGC-7901 cells, but had no effect on cell proliferation. Conversely, knockdown of PAX8 enhanced gastric cancer cell migration and invasion. PAX8 overexpression inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and pro-angiogenic activity of gastric cancer cells. Mechanistically, PAX8 overexpression downregulated FOXM1 by stimulating microRNA (miR)-612 expression. Ectopic expression of miR-612 recapitulated the effect of PAX8 overexpression on gastric cancer cells, causing an inhibition of migration, invasion, EMT, and angiogenesis. Knockdown of miR-612 or overexpression of FOXM1 significantly reversed the tumor-suppressive activity of PAX8. In vivo studies further demonstrated that PAX8 overexpression restrained tumor angiogenesis and metastasis in nude mice, which was accompanied by increased expression of miR-612 and decreased expression of FOXM1.

Conclusions

PAX8 exerts a tumor-suppressive effect against gastric cancer cells, largely through induction of miR-612 and repression of FOXM1. Therefore, restoration of PAX8 expression may offer therapeutic benefits in the treatment of gastric cancer.

Silencing forkhead box M1 promotes apoptosis and autophagy through SIRT7/mTOR/IGF2 pathway in gastric cancer cells

Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) was initially identified as an oncogenic transcription factor, and multiple lines of evidence have demonstrated that FOXM1 is abundantly expressed and plays an irreplaceable role in several types of human cancers. Also, evidence has shown the association of FOXM1 with gastric carcinoma metastasis and patients prognosis; however, the potential role and molecular mechanism of FOXM1 in gastric cancer cell apoptosis are still obscure. The current study indicates that FOXM1 is highly expressed in a variety of gastric carcinoma cell lines, such as BGC823, MGC803, AGS, and SGC-7901, compared with the normal gastric mucosal epithelial cell lines CES-1. FOXM1 silence markedly inhibits AGS and SGC-7901 cell survival and proliferation, increases their apoptosis, and modulates apoptosis-related protein expression, including reduced Bcl-2 level and increased Bax and caspase-3 levels. Further study showed that FOXM1 depletion induced cell autophagy through increasing the level of beclin-1 and decreasing the P62 expression. We next corroborated that FOXM1 silence abolished the expression of Sirtuin 7 (SIRT7) and increased the level of insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Finally, our data documented that the SIRT7/mTOR/IGF2 pathway was involved in the function of FOXM1 in AGS cell growth and apoptosis. In conclusion, these results confirmed that FOXM1 is involved in gastric carcinoma progression via the SIRT7/mTOR/IGF2 pathway.

Molecular alterations of cancer cell and tumour microenvironment in metastatic gastric cancer

The term metastasis is widely used to describe the endpoint of the process by which tumour cells spread from the primary location to an anatomically distant site. Achieving successful dissemination is dependent not only on the molecular alterations of the cancer cells themselves, but also on the microenvironment through which they encounter. Here, we reviewed the molecular alterations of metastatic gastric cancer (GC) as it reflects a large proportion of GC patients currently seen in clinic. We hope that further exploration and understanding of the multistep metastatic cascade will yield novel therapeutic targets that will lead to better patient outcomes.

The Role of Galectins in Cervical Cancer Biology and Progression

Cervical cancer is one of the malignant tumors with high incidence and high mortality among women in developing countries. The main factors affecting the prognosis of cervical cancer are the late recurrence and metastasis and the effective adjuvant treatment, which is radiation and chemotherapy or combination therapy. Galectins, a family containing many carbohydrate binding proteins, are closely involved in the occurrence and development of tumor. They are involved in tumor cells transformation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immune escape, and sensitivity against radiation and chemotherapy. Therefore, galectins are deemed as the targets of multifunctional cancer treatment. In this review, we mainly focus on the role of galectins, especially galectin-1, galectin-3, galectin-7, and galectin-9 in cervical cancer, and provide theoretical basis for potential targeted treatment of cervical cancer.