Tumor-derived exosomes promote tumor progression and T-cell dysfunction through the regulation of enriched exosomal microRNAs in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Tumor Microenvironment-Derived Exosomes: A Double-Edged Sword for Advanced T Cell-Based Immunotherapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in cancer progression and immune evasion, partially mediated by the activity of the TME-derived exosomes. These extracellular vesicles are pivotal in shaping immune responses through the transfer of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids between cells, facilitating a complex interplay that promotes tumor growth and metastasis. This review delves into the dual roles of exosomes in the TME, highlighting both their immunosuppressive functions and their emerging therapeutic potential. Exosomes can inhibit T cell function and promote tumor immune escape by carrying immune-modulatory molecules, such as PD-L1, yet they also hold promise for cancer therapy as vehicles for delivering tumor antigens and costimulatory signals. Additionally, the review discusses the intricate crosstalk mediated by exosomes among various cell types within the TME, influencing both cancer progression and responses to immunotherapies. Moreover, this highlights current challenges and future directions. Collectively, elucidating the detailed mechanisms by which TME-derived exosomes mediate T cell function offers a promising avenue for revolutionizing cancer treatment. Understanding these interactions allows for the development of targeted therapies that manipulate exosomal pathways to enhance the immune system's response to tumors.

Modulation of the Oncogenic LINE-1 Regulatory Network in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer by Exosomal miRNAs

Several microRNAs (miRNAs), including miR-221-5p, Let-7b-5p, miR-21-5p, miR-9-5p, miR-126-3p, and miR-222-3p, were recently found to be enriched in circulating exosomes of patients with non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs). These miRNAs distinguished cancer cases from controls with high precision and were predicted to modulate the expression of genes within the oncogenic LINE-1 regulatory network. To test this hypothesis, plasma exosomes from controls, early, and late-stage NSCLC patients were co-cultured with non-tumorigenic lung epithelial cells for 72 h and processed for measurements of gene expression. Exosomes from late-stage NSCLC patients markedly increased the mRNA levels of LINE-1 ORF1 and ORF2, as well as the levels of target miRNAs in naïve recipient cells compared to saline or control exosomes. Late-stage exosomes also modulated the expression of oncogenic targets within the LINE-1 regulatory network, namely, ICAM1, AGL, RGS3, RGS13, VCAM1, and TGFβ1. In sharp contrast, exosomes from controls or early-stage NSCLC patients inhibited LINE-1 expression, along with many of the genetic targets within the LINE-1 regulatory network. Thus, late-stage NSCLC exosomes activate LINE-1 and miRNA-regulated oncogenic signaling in non-tumorigenic, recipient lung bronchial epithelial cells. These findings raise important questions regarding lung cancer progression and metastasis and open the door for the exploration of new therapeutic interventions.

Epigenetics and Control of Tumor Angiogenesis in Melanoma: An Update with Therapeutic Implications

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones, is a crucial process in the progression and metastasis of melanoma. Recent research has highlighted the significant role of epigenetic modifications in regulating angiogenesis. This review comprehensively examines the current understanding of how epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs, influence angiogenic pathways in melanoma. DNA methylation, a key epigenetic modification, can silence angiogenesis inhibitors such as thrombospondin-1 and TIMP3 while promoting pro-angiogenic factors like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Histone modifications, including methylation and acetylation, also play a pivotal role in regulating the expression of angiogenesis-related genes. For instance, the acetylation of histones H3 and H4 is associated with the upregulation of pro-angiogenic genes, whereas histone methylation patterns can either enhance or repress angiogenic signals, depending on the specific histone mark and context. Non-coding RNAs, particularly microRNAs (miRNAs) further modulate angiogenesis. miRNAs, such as miR-210, have been identified as key regulators, with miR-9 promoting angiogenesis by targeting E-cadherin and enhancing the expression of VEGF. This review also discusses the therapeutic potential of targeting epigenetic modifications to inhibit angiogenesis in melanoma. Epigenetic drugs, such as DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (e.g., 5-azacytidine) and histone deacetylase inhibitors (e.g., Vorinostat), have shown promise in preclinical models by reactivating angiogenesis inhibitors and downregulating pro-angiogenic factors. Moreover, the modulation of miRNAs and lncRNAs presents a novel approach for anti-angiogenic therapy.

Extracellular vesicles miR-574-5p and miR-181a-5p as prognostic markers in NSCLC patients treated with nivolumab

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the management of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), although patient survival is still unsatisfactory. Accurate predictive markers capable of personalizing the treatment of patients with NSCLC are still lacking. Circulating extracellular vesicles involved in cell-to-cell communications through miRNAs (EV-miRs) transfer are promising markers. Plasma from 245 patients with advanced NSCLC who received nivolumab as second-line therapy was collected and analyzed. EV-miRnome was profiled on 174/245 patients by microarray platform, and selected EV-miRs were validated by qPCR. A prognostic model combining EV-miR and clinical variables was built using stepwise Cox regression analysis and tested on an independent patient cohort (71/245). EV-PD-L1 gene copy number was assessed by digital PCR. For 54 patients with disease control, EV-miR changes at best response versus baseline were investigated by microarray and validated by qPCR. EV-miRNome profiling at baseline identified two EV-miRs (miR-181a-5p and miR-574-5p) that, combined with performance status, are capable of discriminating patients unlikely from those that are likely to benefit from immunotherapy (median overall survival of 4 months or higher than 9 months, respectively). EV-PD-L1 digital evaluation reported higher baseline copy number in patients at increased risk of mortality, without improving the prognostic score. Best response EV-miRNome profiling selected six deregulated EV-miRs (miR19a-3p, miR-20a-5p, miR-142-3p, miR-1260a, miR-1260b, and miR-5100) in responding patients. Their longitudinal monitoring highlighted a significant downmodulation already in the first treatment cycles, which lasted more than 6 months. Our results demonstrate that EV-miRs are promising prognostic markers for NSCLC patients treated with nivolumab.

Combining serum microRNAs and machine learning algorithms for diagnosing infectious fever after HSCT

Infection post-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is one of the main causes of patient mortality. Fever is the most crucial clinical symptom indicating infection. However, current microbial detection methods are limited. Therefore, timely diagnosis of infectious fever and administration of antimicrobial drugs can effectively reduce patient mortality. In this study, serum samples were collected from 181 patients with HSCT with or without infection, as well as the clinical information. And more than 80 infectious-related microRNAs in the serum were selected according to the bulk RNA-seq result and detected in the 345 time-pointed serum samples by Q-PCR. Unsupervised clustering result indicates a close association between these microRNAs expression and infection occurrence. Compared to the uninfected cohort, more than 10 serum microRNAs were identified as the combined diagnostic markers in one formula constructed by the Random Forest (RF) algorithms, with a diagnostic accuracy more than 0.90. Furthermore, correlations of serum microRNAs to immune cells, inflammatory factors, pathgens, infection tissue, and prognosis were analyzed in the infection cohort. Overall, this study demonstrates that the combination of serum microRNAs detection and machine learning algorithms holds promising potential in diagnosing infectious fever after HSCT.

MiR-24-3p enhances the Treg/Th17 balance to improve cerebral ischemic injury by suppressing acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 expression

BACKGROUND

Targeting ACC1 (acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase 1) to restore the balance between T-helper 17 (Th17) cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs) through metabolic reprogramming has emerged as a promising strategy for reducing neuroinflammation following stroke. We examined the roles of potential miRNAs in regulating ACC1 expression in Tregs and treating ischemic stroke.

METHODS

The expression of miR-24-3p in CD4+T cells of mice was confirmed. Then the protective effects of Ago-24-3p in a mouse model of prolonged occlusion of the distal middle cerebral artery (dMCAO) were examined. We analyzed the infiltration of Tregs and CD3+T cells into the brain and evaluated the improvement of neurological deficits induced by Ago-24-3p using the Modified Garcia Score and foot fault testing.

RESULTS

Our investigation revealed that miR-24-3p specifically targets ACC1. Elevated levels of miR-24-3p have been demonstrated to increase the population of Tregs and enhance their proliferation and suppressive capabilities. Conversely, targeted reduction of ACC1 in CD4+T cells has been shown to counteract the improved functionality of Tregs induced by miR-24-3p. In a murine model of dMCAO, administration of Ago-24-3p resulted in a substantial reduction in the size of the infarct within the ischemic brain area. This effect was accompanied by an upregulation of Tregs and a downregulation of CD3+T cells in the ischemic brain region. In ACC1 conditional knockout mice, the ability of Ago-24-3p to enhance infiltrating Treg cells and diminish CD3+T cells in the ischemic brain area has been negated. Furthermore, its capacity to reduce infarct volume has been reversed. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Ago-24-3p sustained improvement in post-stroke neurological deficits for up to 4 weeks after the MCAO procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-24-3p shows promise in the potential to reduce ACC1 expression, enhance the immunosuppressive activity of Tregs, and alleviate injuries caused by ischemic stroke. These discoveries imply that miR-24-3p could be a valuable therapeutic option for treating ischemic stroke.

[Advances in salivary exosomal miRNAs in head and neck squamous carcinoma]

Salivary exosomes are extracellular vesicles of 30-150 nm in diameter that exist in saliva and play an important role in substance exchange and signal transduction between cells, delivering the lipids, proteins and nucleic acids they carry to the recipient cells and regulating the physiological and pathological processes of the recipient cells. miRNA, as an important "cargo" in exosomes, is transported to the recipient cells and regulates the signaling pathways of the recipient cells, thus playing a regulatory role in disease progression. The miRNAs are transported to the recipient cells and regulate the signaling pathways of the recipient cells, thus playing a regulatory role in the progression of diseases. With the development of technological tools this year, numerous studies have revealed the important role of salivary exosomal miRNAs in the development of head and neck squamous carcinoma and the role of salivary exosomal miRNAs in the diagnosis and treatment of head and neck squamous carcinoma. This paper reviews the occurrence, treatment and prognosis of salivary exosomal miRNA in head and neck squamous carcinoma, and discusses the potential prospects and importance of salivary exosomal miRNA as a biomarker in the diagnosis of head and neck squamous carcinoma.

Unfolding the Complexity of Exosome-Cellular Interactions on Tumour Immunity and Their Clinical Prospects in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial malignancy situated in the posterolateral nasopharynx. NPC poses grave concerns in Southeast Asia due to its late diagnosis. Together with resistance to standard treatment combining chemo- and radiotherapy, NPC presents high metastatic rates and common recurrence. Despite advancements in immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and cytotoxic-T-lymphocytes (CTLs)-based cellular therapy, the exhaustive T cell profile and other signs of immunosuppression within the NPC tumour microenvironment (TME) remain as concerns to immunotherapy response. Exosomes, extracellular vesicles of 30-150 nm in diameter, are increasingly studied and linked to tumourigenesis in oncology. These bilipid-membrane-bound vesicles are packaged with a variety of signalling molecules, mediating cell-cell communications. Within the TME, exosomes can originate from tumour, immune, or stromal cells. Although there are studies on tumour-derived exosomes (TEX) in NPC and their effects on tumour processes like angiogenesis, metastasis, therapeutic resistance, there is a lack of research on their involvement in immune evasion. In this review, we aim to enhance the comprehension of how NPC TEX contribute to cellular immunosuppression. Furthermore, considering the detectability of TEX in bodily fluids, we will also discuss the potential development of TEX-related biomarkers for liquid biopsy in NPC as this could facilitate early diagnosis and prognostication of the disease.

Extracellular vesicles as tools and targets in therapy for diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized, membranous structures secreted into the extracellular space. They exhibit diverse sizes, contents, and surface markers and are ubiquitously released from cells under normal and pathological conditions. Human serum is a rich source of these EVs, though their isolation from serum proteins and non-EV lipid particles poses challenges. These vesicles transport various cellular components such as proteins, mRNAs, miRNAs, DNA, and lipids across distances, influencing numerous physiological and pathological events, including those within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Their pivotal roles in cellular communication make EVs promising candidates for therapeutic agents, drug delivery systems, and disease biomarkers. Especially in cancer diagnostics, EV detection can pave the way for early identification and offers potential as diagnostic biomarkers. Moreover, various EV subtypes are emerging as targeted drug delivery tools, highlighting their potential clinical significance. The need for non-invasive biomarkers to monitor biological processes for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes remains unfulfilled. Tapping into the unique composition of EVs could unlock advanced diagnostic and therapeutic avenues in the future. In this review, we discuss in detail the roles of EVs across various conditions, including cancers (encompassing head and neck, lung, gastric, breast, and hepatocellular carcinoma), neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, viral infections, autoimmune and renal diseases, emphasizing the potential advancements in molecular diagnostics and drug delivery.

Exosome-derived miR-182-5p promoted cholangiocarcinoma progression and vasculogenesis by regulating ADK/SEMA5a/PI3K pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Increasing evidence suggested that miRNAs regulated the expression of pivotal genes involved in oncogenesis and malignant phenotype. In this project, the purpose was to make an inquiry to the effect and mechanism of miR-182-5p in the progression of cholangiocarcinoma.

METHODS

By analysing TCGA and GEO databases, combined with tissue expression levels, miR-182-5p was identified as one of the most valuable miRNAs for research. The function and relationships between miR-182-5p and downstream target genes were both verified by in vitro and in vivo experiments. Methylation-specific PCR and bisulphite sequencing were used to detect the methylation level changes of downstream gene promoter.

RESULTS

We found that miR-182-5p could be taken up by exosomes secreted from cholangiocarcinoma. Moreover, exosomal derived miR-182-5p promoted vascular endothelial cell proliferation and migration and induced angiogenesis by targeting ADK/SEMA5a. Subsequently, the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway was activated and ultimately caused resistance to gemcitabine and cisplatin.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that the miR-182-5p/ADK/SEMA5a axis might serve as a potential therapeutic target for cholangiocarcinoma.

Tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles in cancer invasion and metastasis: molecular mechanisms, and clinical significance

The production and release of tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles (TDSEVs) from cancerous cells play a pivotal role in the propagation of cancer, through genetic and biological communication with healthy cells. TDSEVs are known to orchestrate the invasion-metastasis cascade via diverse pathways. Regulation of early metastasis processes, pre-metastatic niche formation, immune system regulation, angiogenesis initiation, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, immune modulation, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are among the pathways regulated by TDSEVs. MicroRNAs (miRs) carried within TDSEVs play a pivotal role as a double-edged sword and can either promote metastasis or inhibit cancer progression. TDSEVs can serve as excellent markers for early detection of tumors, and tumor metastases. From a therapeutic point of view, the risk of cancer metastasis may be reduced by limiting the production of TDSEVs from tumor cells. On the other hand, TDSEVs represent a promising approach for in vivo delivery of therapeutic cargo to tumor cells. The present review article discusses the recent developments and the current views of TDSEVs in the field of cancer research and clinical applications.

Extracellular vesicles derived from nasopharyngeal carcinoma induce the emergence of mature regulatory dendritic cells using a galectin-9 dependent mechanism

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma-derived small extracellular vesicles (NPCSEVs) have an immunosuppressive impact on the tumour microenvironment. In this study, we investigated their influence on the generation of tolerogenic dendritic cells and the potential involvement of the galectin-9 (Gal9) they carry in this process. We analysed the phenotype and immunosuppressive properties of NPCSEVs and explored the ability of DCs exposed to NPCSEVs (NPCSEV-DCs) to regulate T cell proliferation. To assess their impact at the pathophysiological level, we performed real-time fluorescent chemoattraction assays. Finally, we analysed phenotype and immunosuppressive functions of NPCSEV-DCs using a proprietary anti-Gal9 neutralising antibody to assess the role of Gal9 in this effect. We described that NPCSEV-DCs were able to inhibit T cell proliferation despite their mature phenotype. These mature regulatory DCs (mregDCs) have a specific oxidative metabolism and secrete high levels of IL-4. Chemoattraction assays revealed that NPCSEVs could preferentially recruit NPCSEV-DCs. Finally, and very interestingly, the reduction of the immunosuppressive function of NPCSEV-DCs using an anti-Gal9 antibody clearly suggested an important role for vesicular Gal9 in the induction of mregDCs. These results revealed for the first time that NPCSEVs promote the emergence of mregDCs using a galectin-9 dependent mechanism and open new perspectives for antitumour immunotherapy targeting NPCSEVs.

Extracellular vesicle-based liquid biopsy biomarkers and their application in precision immuno-oncology

While the field of precision oncology is rapidly expanding and more targeted options are revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, therapeutic resistance particularly to immunotherapy remains a pressing challenge. This can be largely attributed to the dynamic tumor-stroma interactions that continuously alter the microenvironment. While to date most advancements have been made through examining the clinical utility of tissue-based biomarkers, their invasive nature and lack of a holistic representation of the evolving disease in a real-time manner could result in suboptimal treatment decisions. Thus, using minimally-invasive approaches to identify biomarkers that predict and monitor treatment response as well as alert to the emergence of recurrences is of a critical need. Currently, research efforts are shifting towards developing liquid biopsy-based biomarkers obtained from patients over the course of disease. Liquid biopsy represents a unique opportunity to monitor intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment which could occur through the exchange of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs are lipid bilayer membrane nanoscale vesicles which transfer a plethora of biomolecules that mediate intercellular crosstalk, shape the tumor microenvironment, and modify drug response. The capture of EVs using innovative approaches, such as microfluidics, magnetic beads, and aptamers, allow their analysis via high throughput multi-omics techniques and facilitate their use for biomarker discovery. Artificial intelligence, using machine and deep learning algorithms, is advancing multi-omics analyses to uncover candidate biomarkers and predictive signatures that are key for translation into clinical trials. With the increasing recognition of the role of EVs in mediating immune evasion and as a valuable biomarker source, these real-time snapshots of cellular communication are promising to become an important tool in the field of precision oncology and spur the recognition of strategies to block resistance to immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss the emerging role of EVs in biomarker research describing current advances in their isolation and analysis techniques as well as their function as mediators in the tumor microenvironment. We also highlight recent lung cancer and melanoma studies that point towards their application as predictive biomarkers for immunotherapy and their potential clinical use in precision immuno-oncology.

Tumour-derived exosomes promote the induction of monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells by delivering miR-106a-5p and miR-146a-5p in multiple myeloma

The shift of the tumour immune microenvironment to a suppressive state promotes not only the development and progression of the disease in multiple myeloma (MM) but also the development of resistance to immunotherapy. We previously demonstrated that myeloma cells can induce monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (M-MDSCs) from healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) via the concomitant secretion of CC motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), but an unknown mediator also promotes M-MDSC induction. This study demonstrates that miR-106a-5p and miR-146a-5p delivered by tumour-derived exosomes (TEXs) from myeloma cells play essential roles in M-MDSC induction in MM. MiR-106a-5p and miR-146a-5p upregulate various immunosuppressive/inflammatory molecules in PBMCs, such as IDO1, CD38, programmed death-ligand 1, CCL5 or MYD88, which are involved in interferon (IFN)-α response, IFN-γ response, inflammatory response, tumour necrosis factor-α signalling and Interleukin-6-JAK-STAT3 signalling. These molecular features mirror the increases in myeloid cellular compartments of PBMCs when co-cultured with myeloma cells. MiR-106a-5p and miR-146a-5p have a compensatory relationship, and these two miRNAs collaborate with CCL5 and MIF to promote M-MDSC induction. Collectively, novel therapeutic candidates may be involved in TEX-mediated sequential cellular and molecular events underlying M-MDSC induction, potentially improving the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Canine diffuse large b-cell lymphoma downregulates the activity of CD8 + T-cells through tumor-derived extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proposed as the essential mediator between host immunity and cancer development. These EVs conduct cellular communication to facilitate tumor growth, enable invasion and metastasis, and shape the favorable tumor microenvironment. Lymphoma is one of the most common hematological malignancies in humans and dogs. Effective T-cell responses are required for the control of these malignancies. However, the immune crosstalk between CD8 + T-cells, which dominates anti-tumor responses, and canine lymphoma has rarely been described.

METHODS

This study investigates the immune manipulating effects of EVs, produced from the clinical cases and cell line of canine B cell lymphoma, on CD8 + T-cells isolated from canine donors.

RESULTS

Lymphoma-derived EVs lead to the apoptosis of CD8 + T-cells. Furthermore, EVs trigger the overexpression of CTLA-4 on CD8 + T-cells, which indicates that EV blockade could serve as a potential therapeutic strategy for lymphoma patients. Notably, EVs transform the CD8 + T-cells into regulatory phenotypes by upregulating their PD-1, PD-L1, and FoxP3 mRNA expression. The regulatory CD8 + T-cells secret the panel of inhibitory cytokines and angiogenic factors and thus create a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the current study demonstrated that the EVs derived from canine B cell lymphoma impaired the anti-tumor activity of CD8 + T-cells and manipulated the possible induction of regulatory CD8 + T-cells to fail the activation of host cellular immunity.

Theranostic signature of tumor-derived exosomes in cancer

Cancer is the most challenging global health crisis. In the recent times, studies on extracellular vesicles (EVs) are adding a new chapter to cancer research and reports on EVs explores cancer in a new dimension. Exosomes are a group of subpopulations of EVs. It originates from the endosomes and carries biologically active molecules to the neighboring cells which in turn transforms the recipient cell activity. In general, it plays a role in cellular communication. The correlation between exosomes and cancer is fascinating. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) play a dynamic role in cancer progression and are associated with uncontrolled cell growth, angiogenesis, immune suppression, and metastasis. Its molecular cargo is an excellent source of cancer biomarkers. Several advanced molecular profiling approaches assist in exploring the TEXs in depth. This paves the way for a strong foundation for identifying and detecting more specific and efficient biomarkers. TEXs are also gaining importance in scientific society for its role in cancer therapy and several clinical trials based on TEXs is a proof of its significance. In this review, we have highlighted the role of TEXs in mediating immune cell reprogramming, cancer development, metastasis, EMT, organ-specific metastasis, and its clinical significance in cancer theranostics. TEXs profiling is an effective method to understand the complications associated with cancer leading to good health and well-being of the individual and society as a whole.

Collagen code in tumor microenvironment: Functions, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic implications

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is crucial in cancer progression, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important TME component. Collagen is a major ECM component that contributes to tumor cell infiltration, expansion, and distant metastasis during cancer progression. Recent studies reported that collagen is deposited in the TME to form a collagen wall along which tumor cells can infiltrate and prevent drugs from working on the tumor cells. Collagen-tumor cell interaction is complex and requires the activation of multiple signaling pathways for biochemical and mechanical signaling interventions. In this review, we examine the effect of collagen deposition in the TME on tumor progression and discuss the interaction between collagen and tumor cells. This review aims to illustrate the functions and mechanisms of collagen in tumor progression in the TME and its role in tumor therapy. The findings indicated collagen in the TME appears to be a better target for cancer therapy.

Exosomal miRNA-mediated intercellular communications and immunomodulatory effects in tumor microenvironments

Extracellular communication, in other words, crosstalk between cells, has a pivotal role in the survival of an organism. This communication occurs by different methods, one of which is extracellular vesicles. Exosomes, which are small lipid extracellular vesicles, have recently been discovered to have a role in signal transduction between cells inside the body. These vesicles contain important bioactive molecules including lipids, proteins, DNA, mRNA, and noncoding RNAs such as microRNAs (miRNAs). Exosomes are secreted by all cells including immune cells (macrophages, lymphocytes, granulocytes, dendritic cells, mast cells) and tumor cells. The tumor microenvironment (TME) represents a complex network that supports the growth of tumor cells. This microenvironment encompasses tumor cells themselves, the extracellular matrix, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, blood vessels, immune cells, and non-cellular components such as exosomes and cytokines. This review aims to provide insights into the latest discoveries concerning how the immune system communicates internally and with other cell types, with a specific focus on research involving exosomal miRNAs in macrophages, dendritic cells, B lymphocytes, and T lymphocytes. Additionally, we will explore the role of exosomal miRNA in the TME and the immunomodulatory effect.

New Possible Ways to Use Exosomes in Diagnostics and Therapy via JAK/STAT Pathways

Exosomes have the potential to be the future of personalized diagnostics and therapy. They are nano-sized particles between 30 and 100 nm flowing in the extracellular milieu, where they mediate cell-cell communication and participate in immune system regulation. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) secreted from different types of cancer cells are the key regulators of the tumor microenvironment. With their immune suppressive cargo, TDEs prevent the antitumor immune response, leading to reduced effectiveness of cancer treatment by promoting a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment. Involved signaling pathways take part in the regulation of tumor proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Signal transducers and activators of transcription factors (STATs) and Janus kinase (JAK) signaling pathways are crucial in malignancies and autoimmune diseases alike, and their potential to be manipulated is currently the focus of interest. In this review, we aim to discuss exosomes, TDEs, and the JAK/STAT pathways, along with mediators like interleukins, tripartite motif proteins, and interferons.

Exploring the Role of Circulating Cell-Free RNA in the Development of Colorectal Cancer

Circulating tumor RNA (ctRNA) has recently emerged as a novel and attractive liquid biomarker. CtRNA is capable of providing important information about the expression of a variety of target genes noninvasively, without the need for biopsies, through the use of circulating RNA sequencing. The overexpression of cancer-specific transcripts increases the tumor-derived RNA signal, which overcomes limitations due to low quantities of circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA). The purpose of this work is to present an up-to-date review of current knowledge regarding ctRNAs and their status as biomarkers to address the diagnosis, prognosis, prediction, and drug resistance of colorectal cancer. The final section of the article discusses the practical aspects involved in analyzing plasma ctRNA, including storage and isolation, detection technologies, and their limitations in clinical applications.

Context-specific regulation of extracellular vesicle biogenesis and cargo selection

To coordinate, adapt and respond to biological signals, cells convey specific messages to other cells. An important aspect of cell-cell communication involves secretion of molecules into the extracellular space. How these molecules are selected for secretion has been a fundamental question in the membrane trafficking field for decades. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as key players in intercellular communication, carrying not only membrane proteins and lipids but also RNAs, cytosolic proteins and other signalling molecules to recipient cells. To communicate the right message, it is essential to sort cargoes into EVs in a regulated and context-specific manner. In recent years, a wealth of lipidomic, proteomic and RNA sequencing studies have revealed that EV cargo composition differs depending upon the donor cell type, metabolic cues and disease states. Analyses of distinct cargo 'fingerprints' have uncovered mechanistic linkages between the activation of specific molecular pathways and cargo sorting. In addition, cell biology studies are beginning to reveal novel biogenesis mechanisms regulated by cellular context. Here, we review context-specific mechanisms of EV biogenesis and cargo sorting, focusing on how cell signalling and cell state influence which cellular components are ultimately targeted to EVs.

The biological function of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles on metabolism

Multiple studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a key role in the process of information transfer and material transport between cells. EVs are classified into different types according to their sizes, which includes the class of exosomes. In comparison to normal EVs, tumor-derived EVs (TDEs) have both altered components and quantities of contents. TDEs have been shown to help facilitate an environment conducive to the occurrence and development of tumor by regulation of glucose, lipids and amino acids. Furthermore, TDEs can also affect the host metabolism and immune system. EVs have been shown to have multiple clinically useful properties, including the use of TDEs as biomarkers for the early diagnosis of diseases and using the transport properties of exosomes for drug delivery. Targeting the key bioactive cargoes of exosomes could be applied to provide new strategies for the treatment of tumors. In this review, we summarize the finding of studies focused on measuring the effects of TDE on tumor-related microenvironment and systemic metabolism. Video Abstract.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma-derived EVs promote tumor progression by regulating inflammatory cytokines and the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment (TME) contribute to tumor growth, proliferation, and invasion, and tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) act as critical "messengers" of communication in the tumor microenvironment. The effects of EVs derived from oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells on tumor progression and the inflammatory microenvironment are still unclear. Our study aims to investigate the role of OSCC-derived EVs in tumor progression, the imbalanced TME, and immunosuppression and their effect on the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway.

METHODS

EVs were isolated from the supernatant of a mouse OSCC cell line, SCC7. The effects of SCC7-EVs and the EV release-specific inhibitor GW4869 on the proliferation and migration of SCC7 cells were investigated in vitro by using CCK-8 and scratch wound healing assays. RT-qPCR and ELISA were performed to examine the alterations in cytokine levels. Then, a mouse xenograft model of OSCC was established by submucosal injection of SCC7 cells with or without SCC7-EV and GW4869 treatment. The effects of GW4869 and SCC7-EVs on xenograft tumor proliferation and invasion were investigated by tumor volume determination and histopathological examination. ELISA was used to investigate the changes in serum cytokine levels. Immunohistochemistry was adopted to analyze the alterations in the levels of inflammatory cytokines, immune factors, and crucial molecules in the IL-17A signaling pathway.

RESULTS

SCC7-derived EVs increased the supernatant and serum levels of IL-17A, IL-10, IL-1β, and PD-L1, while GW4869 decreased those of TNF-α and IFN-γ. SCC7-EV treatment significantly increased xenograft tumor growth and invasion in mice but resulted in little liquefactive necrosis in tumors. However, GW4869 treatment significantly inhibited xenograft tumor growth but resulted in more liquefactive necrosis. SCC7-derived EVs decreased the expression level of PTPN2, suppressing the immune responses of CD8 + T cells in vivo. Moreover, SCC7-EV treatment significantly enhanced the tumor expression levels of crucial molecules in the IL-17A pathway, including IL-17A, TRAF6 and c-FOS, whereas GW4869 treatment significantly reduced those levels in tumor tissues.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated that OSCC-derived EVs can promote tumor progression by altering the TME, causing an inflammatory cytokine imbalance, inducing immunosuppression, and contributing to overactivation of the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway. Our study might provide novel insights into the role of OSCC-derived EVs in tumor biological behavior and immune dysregulation.

Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Shippers for Noncoding RNA-Based Modulation of Angiogenesis: Insights from Ischemic Stroke and Cancer

Ischemic stroke and systemic cancer are two of the leading causes of mortality. Hypoxia is a central pathophysiological component in ischemic stroke and cancer, representing a joint medical function. This function includes angiogenesis regulation. Vascular remodeling coupled with axonal outgrowth following cerebral ischemia is critical in improving poststroke neurological functional recovery. Antiangiogenic strategies can inhibit cancer vascularization and play a vital role in impeding cancer growth, invasion, and metastasis. Although there are significant differences in the cause of angiogenesis across both pathophysiological conditions, emerging evidence states that common signaling structures, such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) and noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), are involved in this context. EVs, heterogeneous membrane vesicles encapsulating proteomic genetic information from parental cells, act as multifunctional regulators of intercellular communication. Among the multifaceted roles in modulating biological responses, exhaustive evidence shows that ncRNAs are selectively sorted into EVs, modulating common specific aspects of cancer development and stroke prognosis, namely, angiogenesis. This review will discuss recent advancements in the EV-facilitated/inhibited progression of specific elements of angiogenesis with a particular concern about ncRNAs within these vesicles. The review is concluded by underlining the clinical opportunities of EV-derived ncRNAs as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic agents.

Circulating miRNA as a Biomarker in Oral Cancer Liquid Biopsy

Oral cancer is currently challenging the healthcare system, with a high incidence among the population and a poor survival rate. One of the main focuses related to this malignancy is the urge to implement a viable approach for improving its early diagnosis. By introducing the use of liquid biopsy and the identification of potential biomarkers, aiming for a noninvasive approach, new advancements offer promising perspectives in the diagnosis of oral cancer. The present review discusses the potential of circulating miRNAs as oral cancer biomarkers identified in body fluids such as serum, plasma, and saliva samples of oral cancer patients. Existing results reveal an important implication of different miRNA expressions involved in the initiation, development, progression, and metastasis rate of oral malignancy. Liquid biomarkers can play a crucial role in the development of the concept of personalized medicine, providing a wide range of clinical applications and future targeted therapies.

The Long Noncoding RNA Cytoskeleton Regulator RNA (CYTOR)/miRNA-24-3p Axis Facilitates Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Progression by Modulating GAD1 Expression

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a head and neck epithelial carcinoma that is unusually prevalent in Southeast Asia. Noncoding RNAs, including lncRNA and miRNA, and their target genes are considered vital regulators of tumorigenesis and the progression of NPC. However, the detailed underlying mechanisms of GAD1 involved in the regulation of NPC need to be further elucidated. In the present study, we identified that GAD1 was significantly upregulated in NPC tissues. GAD1 overexpression is promoted, while genetic knockdown of GAD1 suppresses proliferation, colony formation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells. Bioinformatics analysis and a luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that GAD1 is a direct target gene of miR-24-3p. In NPC tissues, miR-24-3p was downregulated and the lncRNA CYTOR was upregulated. CYTOR was sponged to suppress the function of miR-24-3p. CYTOR regulates GAD1 expression via modulating miR-24-3p. The CYTOR/miR-24-3p/GAD1 axis is converged to modulate the growth, migration, and invasion of NPC cells. In conclusion, the study identified a novel axis for the regulation of NPC cell growth, providing new insights into the understanding of NPC.

Shaping Up the Tumor Microenvironment: Extracellular Vesicles as Important Intermediaries in Building a Tumor-Supportive Cellular Network

A tumor is not just comprised of cancer cells but also a heterogeneous group of infiltrating and resident host cells, as well as their secreted factors that form the extracellular matrix [...].

Aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A induce a competitive endogenous RNA regulatory network of intestinal immunosuppression by whole-transcriptome analysis

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are common mycotoxins in cereal foods and milk products, and may cause serious negative impacts on human health. The intestine is crucial for immune regulation as it protects host homeostatic health from external contaminants; however, the underlying mechanisms of AFM1 and OTA mediated intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, whole transcriptome analysis was used to characterize BALB/c mouse intestines exposed to individual and combined AFM1 and OTA [3.0 mg/kg body weight (BW)] for 28 days to screen for key intestinal immunotoxicity-related differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs), differentially expressed microRNAs (DEmiRNAs), differentially expressed long non-coding RNAs (DElncRNAs), and associated enriched signaling pathways. Functional validation was then conducted in intestinal differentiated Caco-2 cells using different inhibitor assays to verify the accuracy of transcriptome and the importance of the key screened regulatory factors. In vivo data revealed that AFM1 and OTA exposure disrupted the intestines and exerted intestinal immunosuppression effects. When compared with AFM1, OTA had stronger intestinal toxicity in combined treatments. Further analyses of competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory networks in mice showed that AFM1 and OTA mediated-intestinal immunosuppression was putatively explained as follows: (i) toxins affected DEmRNAs regarding transfer and transduction mechanisms between cells (Csf1, Csf1r, Cxcl10, Cx3cr1, and Irf1), which were regulated by key DEmiRNAs (miR-106-x, miR-107-y, and miR-124-y) and the DElncRNA Rian, and (ii) toxins inhibited transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/I-kappaB kinase (IKK)/inhibitor of kappa Bα (IκBα)/p65 nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling phosphorylation levels, which was validated in differentiated Caco-2 cells using the TAK1 inhibitor (5Z-7-oxozeaenol). In conclusion, we evaluated the risk of co-exposure to AFM1 and OTA and associated health hazards from a whole transcriptome perspective.

Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Immunoediting and Their Potential as Oncoimmunotherapeutics

The tumor microenvironment (TME) within and around a tumor is a complex interacting mixture of tumor cells with various stromal cells, including endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells. In the early steps of tumor formation, the local microenvironment tends to oppose carcinogenesis, while with cancer progression, the microenvironment skews into a protumoral TME and the tumor influences stromal cells to provide tumor-supporting functions. The creation and development of cancer are dependent on escape from immune recognition predominantly by influencing stromal cells, particularly immune cells, to suppress antitumor immunity. This overall process is generally called immunoediting and has been categorized into three phases; elimination, equilibrium, and escape. Interaction of tumor cells with stromal cells in the TME is mediated generally by cell-to-cell contact, cytokines, growth factors, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). The least well studied are EVs (especially exosomes), which are nanoparticle-sized bilayer membrane vesicles released by many cell types that participate in cell/cell communication. EVs carry various proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and small molecules that influence cells that ingest the EVs. Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (TEVs) play a significant role in every stage of immunoediting, and their cargoes change from immune-activating in the early stages of immunoediting into immunosuppressing in the escape phase. In addition, their cargos change with different treatments or stress conditions and can be influenced to be more immune stimulatory against cancer. This review focuses on the emerging understanding of how TEVs affect the differentiation and effector functions of stromal cells and their role in immunoediting, from the early stages of immunoediting to immune escape. Consideration of how TEVs can be therapeutically utilized includes different treatments that can modify TEV to support cancer immunotherapy.

Molecular Management of High-Grade Serous Ovarian Carcinoma

High-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) represents the most common form of epithelial ovarian carcinoma. The absence of specific symptoms leads to late-stage diagnosis, making HGSOC one of the gynecological cancers with the worst prognosis. The cellular origin of HGSOC and the role of reproductive hormones, genetic traits (such as alterations in P53 and DNA-repair mechanisms), chromosomal instability, or dysregulation of crucial signaling pathways have been considered when evaluating prognosis and response to therapy in HGSOC patients. However, the detection of HGSOC is still based on traditional methods such as carbohydrate antigen 125 (CA125) detection and ultrasound, and the combined use of these methods has yet to support significant reductions in overall mortality rates. The current paradigm for HGSOC management has moved towards early diagnosis via the non-invasive detection of molecular markers through liquid biopsies. This review presents an integrated view of the relevant cellular and molecular aspects involved in the etiopathogenesis of HGSOC and brings together studies that consider new horizons for the possible early detection of this gynecological cancer.

Glycocalyx Acts as a Central Player in the Development of Tumor Microenvironment by Extracellular Vesicles for Angiogenesis and Metastasis

Simple Summary

The glycocalyx is a fluffy sugar coat covering the surface of all mammalian cells. While glycocalyx at endothelial cells is a barrier to tumor cell adhesion and transmigration, glycocalyx at tumor cells promotes tumor metastasis. Angiogenesis at primary tumors and the growth of tumor cells at metastatic sites are all affected by the tumor microenvironment, including the blood vasculature, extracellular matrix (ECM), and fibroblasts. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by the tumor cells and tumor-associated endothelial cells are also considered to be the components of the tumor microenvironment. They can modify tumor vasculature, ECM, and fibroblasts. But how the EVs are generated, secreted, and up taken by the endothelial and tumor cells in the development of the tumor microenvironment are unclear, especially after anti-angiogenic therapy (AAT). The objective of this short review is to summarize the role of the glycocalyx in EV biogenesis, secretion, and uptake, as well as the modulation of the glycocalyx by the EVs.

Abstract

Angiogenesis in tumor growth and progression involves a series of complex changes in the tumor microenvironment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important components of the tumor microenvironment, which can be classified as exosomes, apoptotic vesicles, and matrix vesicles according to their origins and properties. The EVs that share many common biological properties are important factors for the microenvironmental modification and play a vital role in tumor growth and progression. For example, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) exosomes, which carry VEGF, participate in the tolerance of anti-angiogenic therapy (AAT). The glycocalyx is a mucopolysaccharide structure consisting of glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans. Both endothelial and tumor cells have glycocalyx at their surfaces. Glycocalyx at both cells mediates the secretion and uptake of EVs. On the other hand, many components carried by EVs can modify the glycocalyx, which finally facilitates the development of the tumor microenvironment. In this short review, we first summarize the role of EVs in the development of the tumor microenvironment. Then we review how the glycocalyx is associated with the tumor microenvironment and how it is modulated by the EVs, and finally, we review the role of the glycocalyx in the synthesis, release, and uptake of EVs that affect tumor microenvironments. This review aims to provide a basis for the mechanistic study of AAT and new clues to address the challenges in AAT tolerance, tumor angiogenesis and metastasis.

Role of exosomal non-coding RNAs from tumor cells and tumor-associated macrophages in the tumor microenvironment

Exosomes have a crucial role in intercellular communication and mediate interactions between tumor cells and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Exosome-encapsulated non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in various physiological processes. Tumor-derived exosomal ncRNAs induce M2 macrophage polarization through signaling pathway activation, signal transduction, and transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. Conversely, TAM-derived exosomal ncRNAs promote tumor proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, chemoresistance, and immunosuppression. MicroRNAs induce gene silencing by directly targeting mRNAs, whereas lncRNAs and circRNAs act as miRNA sponges to indirectly regulate protein expressions. The role of ncRNAs in tumor-host interactions is ubiquitous. Current research is increasingly focused on the tumor microenvironment. On the basis of the "cancer-immunity cycle" hypothesis, we discuss the effects of exosomal ncRNAs on immune cells to induce T cell exhaustion, overexpression of programmed cell death ligands, and create a tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Furthermore, we discuss potential applications and prospects of exosomal ncRNAs as clinical biomarkers and drug delivery systems.

miR-aculous new avenues for cancer immunotherapy

The rising toll of cancer globally necessitates ingenuity in early detection and therapy. In the last decade, the utilization of immune signatures and immune-based therapies has made significant progress in the clinic; however, clinical standards leave many current and future patients without options. Non-coding RNAs, specifically microRNAs, have been explored in pre-clinical contexts with tremendous success. MicroRNAs play indispensable roles in programming the interactions between immune and cancer cells, many of which are current or potential immunotherapy targets. MicroRNAs mechanistically control a network of target genes that can alter immune and cancer cell biology. These insights provide us with opportunities and tools that may complement and improve immunotherapies. In this review, we discuss immune and cancer cell-derived miRNAs that regulate cancer immunity and examine miRNAs as an integral part of cancer diagnosis, classification, and therapy.

miR-1908: a microRNA with diverse functions in cancers and non-malignant conditions

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small-sized transcripts with about 22 nucleotide length. They have been shown to influence almost every aspect of cellular functions through regulation of expression of target genes. miR-1908 is a miRNA with diverse roles in human disorders. This miRNA is encoded by MIR1908 gene on chr11:61,815,161-61,815,240, minus strand. Expression assays have confirmed dysregulation of miR-1908 in cancer-derived cell lines in addition to biological samples obtained from patients affected with cancer. In most assessed cell lines, miR-1908 has an oncogenic role. However, this miRNA has been shown to act as a tumor suppressor in chordoma, lung cancer and ovarian cancer. In addition, several lines of evidence have shown involvement of this miRNA in the pathoetiology of bipolar disorder, myocardial infarction, obesity, renal fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and scar formation. In the current review, we elucidate the results of diverse studies which evaluated participation of miR-1908 in these conditions.

Stress-Induced Immunosuppression Affects Immune Response to Newcastle Disease Virus Vaccine via Circulating miRNAs

Simple Summary

Circulating miRNAs play important roles in immune response and stress-induced immunosuppression, but the function and mechanism of stress-induced immunosuppression affecting the NDV vaccine immune response remain unknown. In our study, key timepoints, functions, mechanisms, and potential biomarkers of circulating miRNAs involved in immune response and immunosuppression were discovered, providing a theoretical basis for studying the roles of circulating miRNAs in immune regulation.

Abstract

Studies have shown that circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) are important players in the immune response and stress-induced immunosuppression. However, the function and mechanism of stress-induced immunosuppression affecting the immune response to the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine remain largely unknown. This study analyzed the changes of 15 NDV-related circulating miRNAs at different immune stages by qRT-PCR, aiming to explore the key timepoints, potential biomarkers, and mechanisms for the functional regulation of candidate circulating miRNAs under immunosuppressed conditions. The results showed that stress-induced immunosuppression induced differential expressions of the candidate circulating miRNAs, especially at 2 days post immunization (dpi), 14 dpi, and 28 dpi. In addition, stress-induced immunosuppression significantly affected the immune response to NDV vaccine, which was manifested by significant changes in candidate circulating miRNAs at 2 dpi, 5 dpi, and 21 dpi. The featured expressions of candidate circulating miRNAs indicated their potential application as biomarkers in immunity and immunosuppression. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the candidate circulating miRNAs possibly regulated immune function through key targeted genes, such as Mg²⁺/Mn²⁺-dependent 1A (PPM1A) and Nemo-like kinase (NLK), in the MAPK signaling pathway. This study provides a theoretical reference for studying the function and mechanism of circulating miRNAs in immune regulation.

Exosomics in oral cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics - An emergent and imperative non-invasive natural nanoparticle-based approach

Exosomes- the natural nanoparticles belonging to heterogeneous vesicles are released via nearly all sorts of cells, including tumour cells, to oprate intercellular communication. Selective packaging of exosomes amid nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins makes them ideal for intercellular communications occurring among different cells. The existence of exosomes has been validated in various biofluids, including saliva. Being non-invasive and in direct contact with oral malignant cells, saliva establishes itself as a preeminent source of early cancer biomarkers. In context, the role and providence of both recipient and donor secreting cells are persuaded through exosomal cargo.Several studies have emphasized the influence of exosomal contents in different stages of cancer development, reconciling interactions between tumour cells and their surrounding niche. More explicitly, a transformation of exosomal contents such as nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins can endorse tumour progression and help ascertain a secluded pre-metastatic niche crammed with substances that errand cancer cell proliferation,angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. The blooming field of exosomes has directed the evolution of high-end isolation and characterization techniques along with the development of an entirely new field- exosomics that comprises complete analysis of exosomal cargo in various physiological conditions, including oral cancer. Researchers have discovered multiple pathways involved in exosome biogenesis to understand numerous events associated with cancer progression. Tissue-specific packaging of exosomes makes them a novel source of prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. The extent of the current review confers the contemporary perception of the versatile task of exosomes, especially salivary exosomes, as potential biomarkers in the progression and diagnosis as well as therapeutics of oral cancers and their potential employment in clinical applications.

Stress-induced immunosuppression affecting avian influenza virus vaccine immune response through miR-20a-5p/NR4A3 pathway in chicken

Stress-induced immunosuppression is one of the most common hazards in poultry intensive production, which often leads to vaccination failure and severe economic losses. At present, there is no report about the function and mechanism of circulating miRNA on stress-induced immunosuppression affecting immune response. In this study, the changes of circulating miR-20a-5p under stress-induced immunosuppressive condition were analyzed by qRT-PCR, and the key time points, tissues and mechanisms for functional regulation of miR-20a-5p in the process of stress-induced immunosuppression affecting avian influenza virus (AIV) vaccine immune response were identified. The results showed that stress-induced immunosuppression down-regulated miR-20a-5p and further affected AIV vaccine immune response, in which 5 day post immunization (dpi) was a key time point, and the heart, lung, and proventriculus were the important tissues. The game relationship analysis between miR-20a-5p and its target nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 3 (NR4A3) gene showed that "miR-20a-5p/NR4A3" pathway was the potential key mechanism of this process, especially for heart and lung. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanisms of stress-induced immunosuppression affecting immune response.

CMTM6 and CMTM4 as two novel regulators of PD-L1 modulate the tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays crucial roles in regulating tumor occurrence, progress, metastasis and drug resistance. However, it remains largely elusive how the components of TME are regulated to govern its functions in tumor biology. Here, we discussed how the two novel functional proteins, chemokine-like factor (CKLF)-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing 6 (CMTM6) and CMTM4, which involved in the post-translational regulation of PD-L1, modulate the TME functions. The roles of CMTM6 and CMTM4 in regulating TME components, including immune cells and tumor cells themselves were discussed in this review. The potential clinical applications of CMTM6 and CMTM4 as biomarkers to predict therapy efficacy and as new or combined immunotherapy targets are also highlighted. Finally, the current hot topics for the biological function of CMTM6/4 and several significant research directions for CMTM6/4 are also briefly summarized in the review.

Paediatric pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukaemia-derived exosomes regulate immune function in human T cells

Exosomes derived from solid tumour cells are involved in immune suppression, angiogenesis and metastasis; however, the role of leukaemia‐derived exosomes has less been investigated. Hence, changes in immune response‐related genes and human T cells apoptosis co‐incubated with exosomes isolated from patients' pre‐B cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia were evaluated in this in vitro study. Vein blood sample was obtained from each newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) patient prior any therapy. ALL serum exosomes were isolated by ultrafiltration and characterized using Western blotting and transmission electron microscopy. Exosomes were then co‐incubated with T lymphocytes and the gene expressions, as well as functions of human T cells were quantified by qRT‐PCR. Apoptosis and caspase‐3 and caspase‐9 protein expression were also evaluated by flowcytometry and Western blotting analysis, respectively. Exosomes isolated from ALL patients affected T lymphocytes and elevated the apoptosis. Moreover, these exosomes altered the T cells profile into regulatory type by increasing the expression of FOXP3 and Tregs‐related cytokines, including TGF‐B and IL‐10. The expression level of Th17‐related transcription factors (RoRγt) and interleukins (IL‐17 and IL‐23) decreased after this treatment. According to our findings, exosomes derived from ALL patients' sera carry immunosuppressive molecules, indicating the possible effect of exosomes as liquid biomarkers for cancer staging.

Exosomes as Theranostic Targets: Implications for the Clinical Prognosis of Aggressive Cancers

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles produced by various cell types and extensively distributed in physiological fluids. Because of their significant role in cancer progression, they have been a focal point for the novel cancer therapy approach. Exosomes are highly efficient at transporting proteins, RNAs, and small drugs into cancer cells for therapeutic purposes. In addition to their prominent role as potential biomarkers for transporting targeted information from their progenitor cells, exosomes have also emerged as a new avenue for developing more effective clinical diagnostics and therapeutic techniques, also known as exosome theranostics. Lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids transported by exosomes were investigated as potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and future cancer treatment targets. The unique mechanism of exosomes and their therapeutic as well as diagnostic uses, also known as theranostic applications of exosomes in malignancies, are discussed in this review.

Functional Properties of Cancer Epithelium and Stroma-Derived Exosomes in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Stroma–cancer cell crosstalk involves a complex signaling network that contributes to tumor progression, including carcinogenesis, angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and therapy resistance in cancers. Exosomes, as extracellular membranous nanovesicles released by almost all types of cells, including tumor cells and stromal cells, play a critical role in signal delivery and material communication, in which the characteristics of their parent cells are reflected. The tumor or stroma-derived exosomes mediate cell–cell communication in the tumor microenvironment by transporting DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. Recent studies on head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) have demonstrated that tumor-derived exosomes support various tumor biological behaviors, whereas the functional roles of stroma-derived exosomes remain largely unknown. Although these exosomes are emerging as promising targets in early diagnosis, prognostic prediction, and pharmaceutical carriers for antitumor therapy, there are still multiple hurdles to be overcome before they can be used in clinical applications. Herein, we systematically summarize the promotive roles of the epithelium and stroma-derived exosomes in HNSCC and highlight the potential clinical applications of exosomes in the treatment of HNSCC.

Potential clinical utility of liquid biopsies in ovarian cancer

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy worldwide. One of the main challenges in the management of OC is the late clinical presentation of disease that results in poor survival. Conventional tissue biopsy methods and serological biomarkers such as CA-125 have limited clinical applications. Liquid biopsy is a novel sampling method that analyzes distinctive tumour components released into the peripheral circulation, including circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA), circulating tumour cells (CTCs), cell-free RNA (cfRNA), tumour-educated platelets (TEPs) and exosomes. Increasing evidence suggests that liquid biopsy could enhance the clinical management of OC by improving early diagnosis, predicting prognosis, detecting recurrence, and monitoring response to treatment. Capturing the unique tumour genetic landscape can also guide treatment decisions and the selection of appropriate targeted therapies. Key advantages of liquid biopsy include its non-invasive nature and feasibility, which allow for serial sampling and longitudinal monitoring of dynamic tumour changes over time. In this review, we outline the evidence for the clinical utility of each liquid biopsy component and review the advantages and current limitations of applying liquid biopsy in managing ovarian cancer. We also highlight future directions considering the current challenges and explore areas where more studies are warranted to elucidate its emerging clinical potential.

Immunological Changes in Pregnancy and Prospects of Therapeutic Pla-Xosomes in Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes

Stringent balance of the immune system is a key regulatory factor in defining successful implantation, fetal development, and timely parturition. Interference in these primary regulatory mechanisms, either at adolescence or prenatal state led to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Fertility restoration with the help of injectable gonadotrophins/progesterone, ovulation-inducing drugs, immunomodulatory drugs (corticosteroids), and reproductive surgeries provides inadequate responses, which manifest its own side effects. The development of a potential diagnostic biomarker and an effectual treatment for adverse pregnancy outcomes is a prerequisite to maternal and child health. Parent cell originated bi-layered-intraluminal nano-vesicles (30-150 nm) also known as exosomes are detected in all types of bodily fluids like blood, saliva, breast milk, urine, etc. Exosomes being the most biological residual structures with the least cytotoxicity are loaded with cargo in the form of RNAs (miRNAs), proteins (cytokines), hormones (estrogen, progesterone, etc.), cDNAs, and metabolites making them chief molecules of cell-cell communication. Their keen involvement in the regulation of biological processes has portrayed them as the power shots of cues to understand the disease's pathophysiology and progression. Recent studies have demonstrated the role of immunexosomes (immunomodulating exosomes) in maintaining unwavering immune homeostasis between the mother and developing fetus for a healthy pregnancy. Moreover, the concentration and size of the exosomes are extensively studied in adverse pregnancies like preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and preterm premature rupture of membrane (pPROMs) as an early diagnostic marker, thus giving in-depth information about their pathophysiology. Exosomes have also been engineered physically as well as genetically to enhance their encapsulation efficiency and specificity in therapy for cancer and adverse pregnancies. Successful bench to bedside discoveries and interventions in cancer has motivated developmental biologists to investigate the role of immunexosomes and their active components. Our review summarizes the pre-clinical studies for the use of these power-shots as therapeutic agents. We envisage that these studies will pave the path for the use of immunexosomes in clinical settings for reproductive problems that arise due to immune perturbance in homeostasis either at adolescence or prenatal state.

The Role of Cancer Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Cancer Progression

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a small portion of tumor cells with self-renewal ability in tumor tissues and are a key factor in tumor resistance, recurrence, and metastasis. CSCs produce a large number of exosomes through various mechanisms, such as paracrine and autocrine signaling. Studies have shown that CSC-derived exosomes (CSC-Exos) carry a variety of gene mutations and specific epigenetic modifications indicative of unique cell phenotypes and metabolic pathways, enabling exchange of information in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote tumor invasion and metastasis. In addition, CSC-Exos carry a variety of metabolites, especially proteins and miRNAs, which can activate signaling pathways to further promote tumor development. CSC-Exos have dual effects on cancer development. Due to advances in liquid biopsy technology for early cancer detection, CSCs-Exos may become an important tool for early cancer diagnosis and therapeutic drug delivery. In this article, we will review how CSC-Exos exert the above effects based on the above two aspects and explore their mechanism of action.

Extracellular Vesicles in the Progression and Therapeutic Resistance of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial malignancy largely associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, which is frequently reported in east and southeast Asia. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) originate from the endosome or plasma membrane, which plays a critical role in tumor pathogenesis for their character of cell-cell communication and its cargos, including proteins, RNA, and other molecules that can target recipient cells and affect their progression. To date, numerous studies have indicated that EVs have crucial significance in the progression, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance of NPC. In this review, we not only summarize the interaction of NPC cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME) through EVs, but also explain the role of EVs in radiation and drug resistance of NPC, which poses a severe threat to cancer therapy. Therefore, EVs may show great potential as biomarkers in the early diagnosis of interfered targets of NPC therapy.

miR-1908 Dysregulation in Human Cancers

MiR-1908 is a miRNA located in the intron of the fatty acid desaturase 1 (FADS1) gene. The expression level of miR-1908 is abnormal in many diseases such as cancer. miR-1908 can inhibit the expression of at least 27 target genes by binding to the 3’ untranslated region (3’ UTR) of target genes. miR-1908 is involved in the biological processes of cell proliferation, cell differentiation, cell apoptosis, cancer cell invasion, and metastasis. The expression of miR-1908 is regulated by 11 factors, including lncRNA HOTTIP, adipokines (TNF-α, leptin, and resistin), NF-κB, free fatty acid (FFA), cholesterol, stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD1), immune-related transcription factors (STAT1, RB1, and IRF1). The expression of miR-1908 is also affected by the anticancer drug OSW-1, growth hormone (GH), and the anticonvulsant drug sodium valproate. In addition, the aberrant expression of miR-1908 is also related to the prognosis of a variety of cancers, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), ovarian cancer (OC), breast cancer, cervical cancer, glioma, high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC), osteosarcoma, etc. This article summarizes the abnormal expression pattern of miR-1908 in various diseases and its molecular regulation mechanisms. Our work will provide potential hints and direction for future miR-1908-related research.

Role of Exosomes and its emerging therapeutic applications in the pathophysiology of Non-Infectious disease

Exosomes are a type of small Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) and play crucial roles in cancer and other diseases. Exosomes role in various diseases has been studied as they regulate intercellular communication and are obtained from almost any part of the body. Exosomes use is complicated in diseases as they promote pathogenesis but also act as a very good therapeutic agent in most diseases. The presence of a complex molecular cargo consisting of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, miRNA, siRNA, etc.,) makes it a very good delivery agent and acts as a biomarker for many cancers, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. They can be used to selectively target cells and activate immune cell responses depending on the source obtained. Exosomes based immunotherapy is an area of gaining importance due to the proteins present in them and their specificity to the targeted cells. The role of exosomes in the diagnosis and treatment of non-infectious diseases is discussed in detail in this article.