Review: Organic nanoparticle based active targeting for photodynamic therapy treatment of breast cancer cells

The phototoxic effect of a gold-antibody-based nanocarrier of phthalocyanine on melanoma monolayers and tumour spheroids

In recent years, photodynamic therapy (PDT) has garnered significant attention in cancer treatment due to its increased potency and non-invasiveness compared to conventional therapies. Active-targeted delivery of photosensitizers (PSs) is a mainstay strategy to significantly reduce its off-target toxicity and enhance its phototoxic efficacy. The anti-melanoma inhibitory activity (MIA) antibody is a targeting biomolecule that can be integrated into a nanocarrier system to actively target melanoma cells due to its specific binding to MIA antigens that are highly expressed on the surface of melanoma cells. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are excellent nanocarriers due to their ability to encapsulate a variety of therapeutics, such as PSs, and their ability to bind with targeting moieties for improved bioavailability in cancer cells. Hence, we designed a nanobioconjugate (NBC) composed of zinc phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (ZnPcS4), AuNPs and anti-MIA Ab to improve ZnPcS4 bioavailability and phototoxicity in two and three-dimensional tumour models. In summary, we demonstrated that this nanobioconjugate showed significant inhibitory effects on both melanoma models due to increased ROS yields and bioavailability of the melanoma cells compared to free ZnPcS4.

Tumor versus Tumor Cell Targeting in Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

The application of metal-based nanoparticles (mNPs) in cancer therapy and diagnostics (theranostics) has been a hot research topic since the early days of nanotechnology, becoming even more relevant in recent years. However, the clinical translation of this technology has been notably poor, with one of the main reasons being a lack of understanding of the disease and conceptual errors in the design of mNPs. Strikingly, throughout the reported studies to date on in vivo experiments, the concepts of "tumor targeting" and "tumor cell targeting" are often intertwined, particularly in the context of active targeting. These misconceptions may lead to design flaws, resulting in failed theranostic strategies. In the context of mNPs, tumor targeting can be described as the process by which mNPs reach the tumor mass (as a tissue), while tumor cell targeting refers to the specific interaction of mNPs with tumor cells once they have reached the tumor tissue. In this review, we conduct a critical analysis of key challenges that must be addressed for the successful targeting of either tumor tissue or cancer cells within the tumor tissue. Additionally, we explore essential features necessary for the smart design of theranostic mNPs, where 'smart design' refers to the process involving advanced consideration of the physicochemical features of the mNPs, targeting motifs, and physiological barriers that must be overcome for successful tumor targeting and/or tumor cell targeting.

Evaluation of Advanced Nanomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Cancer is a persistent global disease and a threat to the human species, with numerous cases reported every year. Over recent decades, a steady but slowly increasing mortality rate has been observed. While many attempts have been made using conventional methods alone as a theragnostic strategy, they have yielded very little success. Most of the shortcomings of such conventional methods can be attributed to the high demands of industrial growth and ever-increasing environmental pollution. This requires some high-tech biomedical interventions and other solutions. Thus, researchers have been compelled to explore alternative methods. This has brought much attention to nanotechnology applications, specifically magnetic nanomaterials, as the sole or conjugated theragnostic methods. The exponential growth of nanomaterials with overlapping applications in various fields is due to their potential properties, which depend on the type of synthesis route used. Either top-down or bottom-up strategies synthesize various types of NPs. The top-down only branches out to one method, i.e., physical, and the bottom-up has two methods, chemical and biological syntheses. This review highlights some synthesis techniques, the types of nanoparticle properties each technique produces, and their potential use in the biomedical field, more specifically for cancer. Despite the evident drawbacks, the success achieved in furthering nanoparticle applications to more complex cancer stages and locations is unmatched.

Bacteriophages in nature: recent advances in research tools and diverse environmental and biotechnological applications

Bacteriophages infect and replicate within bacteria and play a key role in the environment, particularly in microbial ecosystems and bacterial population dynamics. The increasing recognition of their significance stems from their wide array of environmental and biotechnological uses, which encompass the mounting issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Beyond their therapeutic potential in combating antibiotic-resistant infections, bacteriophages also find vast applications such as water quality monitoring, bioremediation, and nutrient cycling within environmental sciences. Researchers are actively involved in isolating and characterizing bacteriophages from different natural sources to explore their applications. Gaining insights into key aspects such as the life cycle of bacteriophages, their host range, immune interactions, and physical stability is vital to enhance their application potential. The establishment of diverse phage libraries has become indispensable to facilitate their wide-ranging uses. Consequently, numerous protocols, ranging from traditional to cutting-edge techniques, have been developed for the isolation, detection, purification, and characterization of bacteriophages from diverse environmental sources. This review offers an exploration of tools, delves into the methods of isolation, characterization, and the extensive environmental applications of bacteriophages, particularly in areas like water quality assessment, the food sector, therapeutic interventions, and the phage therapy in various infections and diseases.

Synthesis, and evaluation of photophysical properties of a potential DPP-derived photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy with D-A-D architecture

The study of a macromolecule derived from DPP and triphenylamine, (DPP-BisTPA) by computational chemistry, its synthesis by direct arylation, optical characterization (UV-Vis and fluorescence) and electrochemistry (cyclic voltammetry), as well as its evaluation as a generator of reactive oxygen species indirectly, through the degradation of uric acid. The results obtained by DFT using B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) and TD-DFT using CAM-B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) reveal values of energy levels of the first singlet and triplet excited state that indicate a possible intersystem crossover and the possible generation of reactive oxygen species by a type I mechanism. The compound presents an absorption region within the phototherapeutic window. The electrochemical bandgap is 1.64 eV which suggests a behavior as a semiconductor. DPP-BisTPa were processed as hemispherical nanoparticles with a size around 100 nm, and NPOs were evaluated as a photosensitizer with a ROS generation yield of 4% using a photodynamic therapy flashlight as the light source.

Recent Advances in Chemistry, Mechanism, and Applications of Quantum Dots in Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy

Semiconductor quantum dots (QD) are a kind of nanoparticle with unique optical properties that have attracted a lot of attention in recent years. In this paper, the characteristics of these nanoparticles and their applications in nanophototherapy have been reviewed. Phototherapy, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), has gained special importance because of its high accuracy and local treatment due to the activation of the drug at the tumor site. PDT is a new way of cancer treatment that is performed by activating light-sensitive compounds named photosensitizers (PS) by light. PSs cause the destruction of diseased tissue through the production of singlet oxygen. PTT is another non-invasive method that induces cell death through the conversion of near-infrared light (NIR) into heat in the tumor situation by the photothermal agent (PA). Through using energy transfer via the FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer) process, QDs provide light absorption wavelength for both methods and cover the optical weaknesses of phototherapy agents.

Material and Design Toolkit for Drug Delivery: State of the Art, Trends, and Challenges

The nanomaterial and related toolkit have promising applications for improving human health and well-being. Nanobased drug delivery systems use nanoscale materials as carriers to deliver therapeutic agents in a targeted and controlled manner, and they have shown potential to address issues associated with conventional drug delivery systems. They offer benefits for treating various illnesses by encapsulating or conjugating biological agents, chemotherapeutic drugs, and immunotherapeutic agents. The potential applications of this technology are vast; however, significant challenges exist to overcome such as safety issues, toxicity, efficacy, and insufficient capacity. This article discusses the latest developments in drug delivery systems, including drug release mechanisms, material toolkits, related design molecules, and parameters. The concluding section examines the limitations and provides insights into future possibilities.

A detailed insight of the tumor targeting using nanocarrier drug delivery system

Human struggle against the deadly disease conditions is continued since ages. The contribution of science and technology in fighting against these diseases cannot be ignored exclusively due to the invention of novel procedure and products, extending their size ranges from micro to nano. Recently nanotechnology has been gaining more consideration for its ability to diagnose and treat different cancers. Different nanoparticles have been used to evade the issues related with conservative anticancer delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, adverse effects and burst release. These nanocarriers including, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liposomes, nano lipid carriers (NLCs), nano micelles, nanocomposites, polymeric and magnetic nanocarriers, have brought revolutions in antitumor drug delivery. Nanocarriers improved the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs with better accumulation at the specific site with sustained release, improved bioavailability and apoptosis of the cancer cells while bypassing the normal cells. In this review, the cancer targeting techniques and surface modification on nanoparticles are discussed briefly with possible challenges and opportunities. It can be concluded that understanding the role of nanomedicine in tumor treatment is significant, and therefore, the modern progressions in this arena is essential to be considered for a prosperous today and an affluent future of tumor patients.

Hybrid protein-peptide system for the selective pH-dependent binding and photodynamic ablation of cancer cells

Creating new tools for the early diagnosis and treatment of cancer is one of the most important and intensively developing areas of modern medicine. Currently, photodynamic cancer therapy (PDT) is attracting increasing attention as a unique modality of minimally invasive treatment and due to the absence of acquired resistance. However, PDT is associated with undesirable activities, such as non-specific photodynamic effects of sunlight on healthy tissues. Therefore, an important fundamental task is the development of improved PDT agents that selectively act on the affected areas. Here, we report the development of a hybrid protein-peptide system for the selective pH-dependent binding and subsequent photodynamic cancer cells ablation. It is known that a distinctive feature of cancer cells is a decreased pH level in the extracellular space. In this study we exploited a peptide fragment (pHLIP) as a targeting module, which spontaneously binds and embeds into the cell membrane when pH decreases below neutral. A mutant of miniSOG protein fused to pHLIP was used as a photosensitizing constituent. We demonstrate that this protein-peptide photosensitizing system selectively binds to HeLa cells at pH below 6.8 and kills them when exposed to light. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using genetically encoded MiniSOG fusions with pHLIP for the targeted delivery of PSs to cancer cells and subsequent highly precise photodynamic therapy.

Unleashing the power of porphyrin photosensitizers: Illuminating breakthroughs in photodynamic therapy

This comprehensive review provides the current trends and recent developments of porphyrin-based photosensitizers. We discuss their evolution from first-generation to third-generation compounds, including cutting-edge nanoparticle-integrated derivatives, and explores their pivotal role in advancing photodynamic therapy (PDT) for enhanced cancer treatment. Integrating porphyrins with nanoparticles represents a promising avenue, offering improved selectivity, reduced toxicity, and heightened biocompatibility. By elucidating recent breakthroughs, innovative methodologies, and emerging applications, this review provides a panoramic snapshot of the dynamic field, addressing challenges and charting prospects. With a focus on harnessing reactive oxygen species (ROS) through light activation, PDT serves as a minimally invasive therapeutic approach. This article offers a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and PDT enthusiasts, highlighting the potential of porphyrin photosensitizers to improve the future of cancer therapy.

Photosensitizers-Loaded Nanocarriers for Enhancement of Photodynamic Therapy in Melanoma Treatment

Malignant melanoma poses a significant global health burden. It is the most aggressive and lethal form of skin cancer, attributed to various risk factors such as UV radiation exposure, genetic modifications, chemical carcinogens, immunosuppression, and fair complexion. Photodynamic therapy is a promising minimally invasive treatment that uses light to activate a photosensitizer, resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen species, which ultimately promote cell death. When selecting photosensitizers for melanoma photodynamic therapy, the presence of melanin should be considered. Melanin absorbs visible radiation similar to most photosensitizers and has antioxidant properties, which undermines the reactive species generated in photodynamic therapy processes. These characteristics have led to further research for new photosensitizing platforms to ensure better treatment results. The development of photosensitizers has advanced with the use of nanotechnology, which plays a crucial role in enhancing solubility, optical absorption, and tumour targeting. This paper reviews the current approaches (that use the synergistic effect of different photosensitizers, nanocarriers, chemotherapeutic agents) in the photodynamic therapy of melanoma.

Recent Advances in Cancer Immunotherapy Delivery Modalities

Immunotherapy is crucial in fighting cancer and achieving successful remission. Many novel strategies have recently developed, but there are still some obstacles to overcome before we can effectively attack the cancer cells and decimate the cancer environment by inducing a cascade of immune responses. To successfully demonstrate antitumor activity, immune cells must be delivered to cancer cells and exposed to the immune system. Such cutting-edge technology necessitates meticulously designed delivery methods with no loss or superior homing onto cancer environments, as well as high therapeutic efficacy and fewer adverse events. In this paper, we discuss recent advances in cancer immunotherapy delivery techniques, as well as their future prospects.

Anti-Hypoxia Nanoplatforms for Enhanced Photosensitizer Uptake and Photodynamic Therapy Effects in Cancer Cells

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) holds great promise in cancer eradication due to its target selectivity, non-invasiveness, and low systemic toxicity. However, due to the hypoxic nature of many native tumors, PDT is frequently limited in its therapeutic effect. Additionally, oxygen consumption during PDT may exacerbate the tumor's hypoxic condition, which stimulates tumor proliferation, metastasis, and invasion, resulting in poor treatment outcomes. Therefore, various strategies have been developed to combat hypoxia in PDT, such as oxygen carriers, reactive oxygen supplements, and the modulation of tumor microenvironments. However, most PDT-related studies are still conducted on two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures, which fail to accurately reflect tissue complexity. Thus, three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures are ideal models for drug screening, disease simulation and targeted cancer therapy, since they accurately replicate the tumor tissue architecture and microenvironment. This review summarizes recent advances in the development of strategies to overcome tumor hypoxia for enhanced PDT efficiency, with a particular focus on nanoparticle-based photosensitizer (PS) delivery systems, as well as the advantages of 3D cell cultures.

Multifunctional Photoactive Nanomaterials for Photodynamic Therapy against Tumor: Recent Advancements and Perspectives

Numerous treatments are available for cancer, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, biomarker testing, surgery, photodynamic therapy, etc. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective, non-invasive, novel, and clinically approved strategy to treat cancer. In PDT, three main agents are utilized, i.e., photosensitizer (PS) drug, oxygen, and light. At first, the photosensitizer is injected into blood circulation or applied topically, where it quickly becomes absorbed or accumulated at the tumor site passively or actively. Afterward, the tumor is irradiated with light which leads to the activation of the photosensitizing molecule. PS produces the reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in the death of the tumor cell. However, the effectiveness of PDT for tumor destruction is mainly dependent on the cellular uptake and water solubility of photosensitizer molecules. Therefore, the delivery of photosensitizer molecules to the tumor cell is essential in PDT against cancer. The non-specific distribution of photosensitizer results in unwanted side effects and unsuccessful therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, to improve PDT clinical outcomes, the current research is mostly focused on developing actively targeted photosensitizer molecules, which provide a high cellular uptake and high absorption capacity to the tumor site by overcoming the problem associated with conventional PDT. Therefore, this review aims to provide current knowledge on various types of actively and passively targeted organic and inorganic nanocarriers for different cancers.

Advances in biomaterials for the treatment of retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is the most common primary intraocular malignancy in children. Although traditional chemotherapy has shown some success in retinoblastoma management, there are several shortcomings to this approach, including inadequate pharmacokinetic parameters, multidrug resistance, low therapeutic efficiency, nonspecific targeting, and the need for adjuvant therapy, among others. The revolutionary developments in biomaterials for drug delivery have enabled breakthroughs in cancer management. Today, biomaterials are playing a crucial role in developing more efficacious retinoblastoma treatments. The key goal in the evolution of drug delivery biomaterials for retinoblastoma therapy is to resolve delivery-associated obstacles and lower nonlocal exposure while ameliorating certain adverse effects. In this review, we will first delve into the historical perspective of retinoblastoma with a focus on the classical treatments currently used in clinics to enhance patients' quality of life and survival rate. As we move along, we will discuss biomaterials for drug delivery applications. Various aspects of biomaterials for drug delivery will be dissected, including their features and recent advances. In accordance with the current advances in biomaterials, we will deliver a synopsis on the novel chemotherapeutic drug delivery strategies and evaluate these approaches to gain new insights into retinoblastoma treatment.

Histopathological Analysis of the Effect of Photodynamic Action on Post-Chemotherapy Excised Breast Cancer Tissue

Background and objectives: Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in women and its mortality is increasing. Therefore, research to improve treatment is of paramount importance. One method of treatment is photodynamic therapy. Photodynamic therapy selectively stimulates apoptosis in photosensitizer-treated neoplastic breast cells as a result of cytotoxic singlet oxygen generation via collisions between triplet excited state photosensitizer and triplet ground state oxygen upon tissue irradiation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of photodynamic action on cancerous breast tissue samples as a model of photodynamic therapy. Materials and Methods: Breast cancer tissue samples were obtained from post-operative material and the patterns of histopathological changes in breast cancer tissue before and after photodynamic action on post-chemotherapy tissue were evaluated. Excised tissue samples were obtained from 48 female breast cancer patients who had previously undergone chemotherapy. Breast cancer tissues for this study were taken from macroscopically visible tumors larger than 10 mm. Histopathological analysis was performed to evaluate any morphological changes prior to and after photodynamic action on the post-chemotherapy tissue samples. Eighteen breast cancer tissue samples were analyzed before chemotherapy, fifteen after chemotherapy, and fifteen samples were analyzed after chemotherapy and application of photodynamic action. The photosensitizer Rose Bengal was applied to the samples subjected to photodynamic action. Results: Photodynamic action on post-chemotherapy neoplastic tissue showed histological changes under a light microscope. The results showed that morphological changes in breast cancer tissues after chemotherapy and photodynamic action were dependent on the concentration of Rose Bengal. In all cases, follow-up imaging showed tumor shrinkage of an average of 35% from baseline size. Conclusions: Histopathological examination revealed photosensitizer-concentration-dependent changes after photodynamic action in excised post-chemotherapy tissue. The effects of photodynamic action observed in this study suggest that the application of photodynamic therapy after chemotherapy can aid in breast cancer cell eradication.

Controlling the Biological Behaviors of Polymer-Coated Upconverting Nanoparticles by Adjusting the Linker Length of Estrone Ligands

The estrone ligand is used for modifying nanoparticle surfaces to improve their targeting effect on cancer cell lines. However, to date, there is no common agreement on the ideal linker length to be used for the optimum targeting performance. In this study, we aimed to investigate the impact of poly(poly ethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate) (PPEGMEMA) linker length on the cellular uptake behavior of polymer-coated upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs). Different triblock terpolymers, poly(poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-block-polymethacrylic acid-block-polyethylene glycol methacrylate phosphate (PPEGMEMA_x-b-PMAA_y-b-PEGMP₃: x = 7, 15, 33, and 80; y = 16, 20, 18, and 18), were synthesized with different polymer linker chain lengths between the surface and the targeting ligand by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization. The estrone ligand was attached to the polymer via specific terminal conjugation. The cellular association of polymer-coated UCNPs with linker chain lengths was evaluated in MCF-7 cells by flow cytometry. Our results showed that the bioactivity of ligand modification is dependent on the length of the polymer linker. The shortest polymer PPEGMEMA₇-b-PMAA₁₆-b-PEGMP₃ with estrone at the end of the polymer chain was found to have the best cellular association behavior in the estrogen receptor (ER)α-positive expression cell line MCF-7. Additionally, the anticancer drug doxorubicin•HCl was encapsulated in the nanocarrier to evaluate the 2D and 3D cytotoxicity. The results showed that estrone modification could efficiently improve the cellular uptake in ERα-positive expression cell lines and in 3D spheroid models.

Surface Engineering of Nanomaterials with Polymers, Biomolecules, and Small Ligands for Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is a speedily growing area of medical research that is focused on developing nanomaterials for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. Nanomaterials with unique physicochemical properties have recently attracted a lot of attention since they offer a lot of potential in biomedical research. Novel generations of engineered nanostructures, also known as designed and functionalized nanomaterials, have opened up new possibilities in the applications of biomedical approaches such as biological imaging, biomolecular sensing, medical devices, drug delivery, and therapy. Polymers, natural biomolecules, or synthetic ligands can interact physically or chemically with nanomaterials to functionalize them for targeted uses. This paper reviews current research in nanotechnology, with a focus on nanomaterial functionalization for medical applications. Firstly, a brief overview of the different types of nanomaterials and the strategies for their surface functionalization is offered. Secondly, different types of functionalized nanomaterials are reviewed. Then, their potential cytotoxicity and cost-effectiveness are discussed. Finally, their use in diverse fields is examined in detail, including cancer treatment, tissue engineering, drug/gene delivery, and medical implants.

Artificial photoactive chlorophyll conjugated vanadium carbide nanostructure for synergistic photothermal/photodynamic therapy of cancer

Optically active nanostructures consisting of organic compounds and metallic support have shown great promise in phototherapy due to their increased light absorption capacity and high energy conversion. Herein, we conjugated chlorophyll (Chl) to vanadium carbide (V2C) nanosheets for combined photodynamic/photothermal therapy (PDT/PTT), which reserves the advantages of each modality while minimizing the side effects to achieve an improved therapeutic effect. In this system, the Chl from Leptolyngbya JSC-1 extracts acted as an efficient light-harvest antenna in a wide NIR range and photosensitizers (PSs) for oxygen self-generation hypoxia-relief PDT. The available large surface of two-dimensional (2D) V2C showed high Chl loading efficiency, and the interaction between organic Chl and metallic V2C led to energy conversion efficiency high to 78%. Thus, the Chl/ V2C nanostructure showed advanced performance in vitro cell line killing and completely ablated tumors in vivo with 100% survival rate under a single NIR irradiation. Our results suggest that the artificial optical Chl/V2C nanostructure will benefit photocatalytic tumor eradication clinic application.

Nanoparticle Systems for Cancer Phototherapy: An Overview

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) are photo-mediated treatments with different mechanisms of action that can be addressed for cancer treatment. Both phototherapies are highly successful and barely or non-invasive types of treatment that have gained attention in the past few years. The death of cancer cells because of the application of these therapies is caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species, that leads to oxidative stress for the case of photodynamic therapy and the generation of heat for the case of photothermal therapies. The advancement of nanotechnology allowed significant benefit to these therapies using nanoparticles, allowing both tuning of the process and an increase of effectiveness. The encapsulation of drugs, development of the most different organic and inorganic nanoparticles as well as the possibility of surfaces' functionalization are some strategies used to combine phototherapy and nanotechnology, with the aim of an effective treatment with minimal side effects. This article presents an overview on the use of nanostructures in association with phototherapy, in the view of cancer treatment.

Targeted Photodynamic Diagnosis and Therapy for Esophageal Cancer: Potential Role of Functionalized Nanomedicine

Esophageal cancer is often diagnosed at the late stage when cancer has already spread and is characterized by a poor prognosis. Therefore, early diagnosis is vital for a better and efficient treatment outcome. Upper endoscopy with biopsy is the standard diagnostic tool for esophageal cancer but is challenging to diagnose at its premalignant stage, while conventional treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and irradiation therapy, are challenging to eliminate the tumor. Photodynamic diagnosis (PDD) and therapy (PDT) modalities that employ photosensitizers (PSs) are emerging diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for esophageal cancer. However, some flaws associated with the classic PSs have limited their clinical applications. Functionalized nanomedicine has emerged as a potential drug delivery system to enhance PS drug biodistribution and cellular internalization. The conjugation of PSs with functionalized nanomedicine enables increased localization within esophageal cancer cells due to improved solubility and stability in blood circulation. This review highlights PS drugs used for PDD and PDT for esophageal cancer. In addition, it focuses on the various functionalized nanomedicine explored for esophageal cancer and their role in targeted PDD and PDT for diagnosis and treatment.

Liposomes: Structure, Biomedical Applications, and Stability Parameters With Emphasis on Cholesterol

Liposomes are essentially a subtype of nanoparticles comprising a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head constituting a phospholipid membrane. The spherical or multilayered spherical structures of liposomes are highly rich in lipid contents with numerous criteria for their classification, including structural features, structural parameters, and size, synthesis methods, preparation, and drug loading. Despite various liposomal applications, such as drug, vaccine/gene delivery, biosensors fabrication, diagnosis, and food products applications, their use encounters many limitations due to physico-chemical instability as their stability is vigorously affected by the constituting ingredients wherein cholesterol performs a vital role in the stability of the liposomal membrane. It has well established that cholesterol exerts its impact by controlling fluidity, permeability, membrane strength, elasticity and stiffness, transition temperature (Tm), drug retention, phospholipid packing, and plasma stability. Although the undetermined optimum amount of cholesterol for preparing a stable and controlled release vehicle has been the downside, but researchers are still focused on cholesterol as a promising material for the stability of liposomes necessitating explanation for the stability promotion of liposomes. Herein, the prior art pertaining to the liposomal appliances, especially for drug delivery in cancer therapy, and their stability emphasizing the roles of cholesterol.

Photodynamic Therapy: A Compendium of Latest Reviews

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising therapy against cancer. Even though it has been investigated for more than 100 years, scientific publications have grown exponentially in the last two decades. For this reason, we present a brief compendium of reviews of the last two decades classified under different topics, namely, overviews, reviews about specific cancers, and meta-analyses of photosensitisers, PDT mechanisms, dosimetry, and light sources. The key issues and main conclusions are summarized, including ways and means to improve therapy and outcomes. Due to the broad scope of this work and it being the first time that a compendium of the latest reviews has been performed for PDT, it may be of interest to a wide audience.

A Critical Review of the Use of Surfactant-Coated Nanoparticles in Nanomedicine and Food Nanotechnology

Surfactants, whose existence has been recognized as early as 2800 BC, have had a long history with the development of human civilization. With the rapid development of nanotechnology in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in nanomedicine and food nanotechnology using nanoparticles have been remarkable, and new applications have been developed. The technology of surfactant-coated nanoparticles, which provides new functions to nanoparticles for use in the fields of nanomedicine and food nanotechnology, is attracting a lot of attention in the fields of basic research and industry. This review systematically describes these "surfactant-coated nanoparticles" through various sections in order: 1) surfactants, 2) surfactant-coated nanoparticles, application of surfactant-coated nanoparticles to 3) nanomedicine, and 4) food nanotechnology. Furthermore, current progress and problems of the technology using surfactant-coated nanoparticles through recent research reports have been discussed.

Combined cancer therapeutics-Tackling the complexity of the tumor microenvironment

Cancer treatment has yet to find a "silver bullet" capable of selectively and effectively kill tumor cells without damaging healthy cells. Nanomedicine is a promising field that can combine several moieties in one system to produce a multifaceted nanoplatform. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is considered responsible for the ineffectiveness of cancer therapeutics and the difficulty in the translation from the bench to bed side of novel nanomedicines. A promising approach is the use of combinatorial therapies targeting the TME with the use of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials which would increase tumor targeting. Contemporary combined strategies for TME-targeting nanoformulations are based on the application of external stimuli therapies, such as photothermy, hyperthermia or ultrasounds, in combination with stimuli-responsive nanoparticles containing a core, usually composed by metal oxides or graphene, and a biocompatible stimuli-responsive coating layer that could also contain tumor targeting moieties and a chemotherapeutic agent to enhance the therapeutic efficacy. The obstacles that nanotherapeutics must overcome in the TME to accomplish an effective therapeutic cargo delivery and the proposed strategies for improved nanotherapeutics will be reviewed. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

The potential of photodynamic therapy in current breast cancer treatment methodologies

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) has been known for over a hundred years, and currently gaining in acceptance as an alternative cancer treatment. Light delivery is still a difficult problem in deep cancer treatment with PDT. Only near-infrared light in the 700-1100 nm range can penetrate deeply into the tissue because most tissue chromophores, including oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, melanin and fat, poorly absorb in the near infrared window. The light sources used in PDT are lasers, arc lamps, light-emitting diodes and fluorescent lamps. PDT has been used for many different clinical applications. PDT may be excellent alternative in the treatment and diagnosis of breast cancer compared to the conventional surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The basic elements of PDT are an appropriate photosensitizer (PS), oxygen, and light. The effectiveness of photodynamic therapy depends on the induction of photocytotoxic reactions, which are the result of light activation of PS), pre-administered to the body. The condition for initiating PDT processes is light absorption by PS and subsequent localized generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species. This study is a review of empirical research aimed at improving the therapy and diagnosis of breast cancer using PDT based on the physicochemical differences in healthy and diseased tissues and the tissues undergoing treatment.