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Exploiting Cancer's Tactics to Make Cancer a Manageable Chronic Disease. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12061649. [PMID: 32580319 PMCID: PMC7352192 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12061649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The history of modern oncology started around eighty years ago with the introduction of cytotoxic agents such as nitrogen mustard into the clinic, followed by multi-agent chemotherapy protocols. Early success in radiation therapy in Hodgkin lymphoma gave birth to the introduction of radiation therapy into different cancer treatment protocols. Along with better understanding of cancer biology, we developed drugs targeting cancer-related cellular and genetic aberrancies. Discovery of the crucial role of vasculature in maintenance, survival, and growth of a tumor opened the way to the development of anti-angiogenic agents. A better understanding of T-cell regulatory pathways advanced immunotherapy. Awareness of stem-like cancer cells and their role in cancer metastasis and local recurrence led to the development of drugs targeting them. At the same time, sequential and rapidly accelerating advances in imaging and surgical technology have markedly increased our ability to safely remove ≥90% of tumor cells. While we have advanced our ability to kill cells from multiple directions, we have still failed to stop most types of cancer from recurring. Here we analyze the tactics employed in cancer evolution; namely, chromosomal instability (CIN), intra-tumoral heterogeneity (ITH), and cancer-specific metabolism. These tactics govern the resistance to current cancer therapeutics. It is time to focus on maximally delaying the time to recurrence, with drugs that target these fundamental tactics of cancer evolution. Understanding the control of CIN and the optimal state of ITH as the most important tactics in cancer evolution could facilitate the development of improved cancer therapeutic strategies designed to transform cancer into a manageable chronic disease.
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2
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Ke C, Luo JR, Cen ZW, Li Y, Cai HP, Wang J, Chen FR, Siegel ER, Le KN, Winokan JR, Gibson GJ, McSwain AE, Afrasiabi K, Linskey ME, Zhou YX, Chen ZP, Zhou YH. Dual antivascular function of human fibulin-3 variant, a potential new drug discovery strategy for glioblastoma. Cancer Sci 2020; 111:940-950. [PMID: 31922633 PMCID: PMC7060460 DOI: 10.1111/cas.14300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The ECM protein EFEMP1 (fibulin-3) is associated with all types of solid tumor through its cell context-dependent dual function. A variant of fibulin-3 was engineered by truncation and mutation to alleviate its oncogenic function, specifically the proinvasive role in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells at stem-like state. ZR30 is an in vitro synthesized 39-kDa protein of human fibulin-3 variant. It has a therapeutic effect in intracranial xenograft models of human GBM, through suppression of epidermal growth factor receptor/AKT and NOTCH1/AKT signaling in GBM cells and extracellular MMP2 activation. Glioblastoma multiforme is highly vascular, with leaky blood vessels formed by tumor cells expressing endothelial cell markers, including CD31. Here we studied GBM intracranial xenografts, 2 weeks after intratumoral injection of ZR30 or PBS, by CD31 immunohistochemistry. We found a 70% reduction of blood vessel density in ZR30-treated xenografts compared with that of PBS-treated ones. Matrigel plug assays showed the effect of ZR30 on suppressing angiogenesis. We further studied the effect of ZR30 on genes involved in endothelial transdifferentiation (ETD), in 7 primary cultures derived from 3 GBMs under different culture conditions. Two GBM cultures formed mesh structures with upregulation of ETD genes shortly after culture in Matrigel Matrix, and ZR30 suppressed both. ZR30 also downregulated ETD genes in two GBM cultures with high expression of these genes. In conclusion, multifaceted tumor suppression effects of human fibulin-3 variant include both suppression of angiogenesis and vasculogenic mimicry in GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Ke
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun-Ran Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zi-Wen Cen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanyan Li
- Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Hai-Ping Cai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fu-Rong Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Eric R Siegel
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Kody N Le
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jesica R Winokan
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Grace J Gibson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Asia E McSwain
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Kambiz Afrasiabi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Mark E Linskey
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - You-Xin Zhou
- Neurosurgery and Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhong-Ping Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yi-Hong Zhou
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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Hu J, Duan B, Jiang W, Fu S, Gao H, Lu L. Epidermal growth factor-containing fibulin-like extracellular matrix protein 1 (EFEMP1) suppressed the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by promoting Semaphorin 3B(SEMA3B). Cancer Med 2019; 8:3152-3166. [PMID: 30972979 PMCID: PMC6558597 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.2144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Epidermal growth factor-containing fibulin-like extracellular matrix protein 1(EFEMP1) has been found to be involved in the occurrence and development of many cancers. The relationship between EFEMP1 and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the molecular mechanism are not fully understood. METHODS Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and tissue microarray were used to detect the expression of EFEMP1 in HCC cell lines and tissue. Methylation-specific PCR assay was used to measure the methylation level of EFEMP1 in HCC cell lines and tissue. To study the function of EFEMP1 on cell function, Huh7 and HepG2 were infected with lentiviral particles expressing EFEMP1. MTT assay and colony formation assay were used to examine the effect of EFEMP1 on cell proliferation. Annexin-VAPC/7-AAD double were used to detect the effect of EFEMP1 on cell apoptosis. To further detect the effect of EFEMP1 on the development of HCC in vivo, we performed the tumor formation experiment in nude mice. Gene chip was used to detect the expression profile of Huh7 and HepG2 overexpressing EFEMP1. To further screen out the differences, GO analysis and pathway analysis were performed. To study the effects of SEMA3B, specific siRNA was used to inhibit the expression of SEMA3B. Chi-squared test and rank sum test were used to analyze the relationship between EFEMP1 expression and HCC clinical characteristic. RESULTS The study found that the expression of EFEMP1 was significantly decreased in HCC cell lines and HCC tissues. The expression level of EFEMP1 was related to the TNM (the extent of the tumor, the extent of spread to the lymph nodes, the presence of metastasis) stage and the prognosis of patients with HCC. The decrease of protein expression suggested that the patient prognosis was worse, and the protein level of EFEMP1 may be an independent factor in the prognosis of HCC patients. Promoter methylation may be one of the reasons for EFEMP1 inhibition. EFEMP1 could inhibit the proliferation of HCC cells and promoted the apoptosis of HCC cells to regulate the development of HCC. And EFEMP1 promoted the apoptosis of HCC cells mainly through the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. EFEMP1 may inhibit the proliferation of HCC cells through the SEMA3B gene in the Axon guidance pathway. CONCLUSION In summary, our research revealed the regulation of EFEMP1 on cell proliferation and apoptosis in HCC. EFEMP1 may suppress the growth of HCC cells by promoting SEMA3B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangfeng Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bensong Duan
- Endoscopy Center, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Weiliang Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Sengwang Fu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hengjun Gao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lungen Lu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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4
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Yan D, Hao C, Xiao-Feng L, Yu-Chen L, Yu-Bin F, Lei Z. Molecular mechanism of Notch signaling with special emphasis on microRNAs: Implications for glioma. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:158-170. [PMID: 30076599 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.26775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioma is the most aggressive primary brain tumor and is notorious for resistance to chemoradiotherapy. Although its associated mechanisms are still not completely understood, Notch signaling, an evolutionarily conserved pathway, appears to be the key processes involved. Nevertheless, its mechanisms are sophisticated, due to a variety of targets and signal pathways, especially microRNA. MicroRNAs, which are small noncoding regulatory RNA molecules, have been proposed as one of the key mechanisms in glioma pathogenesis. Among the known glioma associated microRNA, microRNA-129, microRNA-34 family, and microRNA-326 have been shown to influence the progress of glioma through Notch signaling. Evidence also indicates that recurrence is due to development or persistence of the glioma stem-like cells and active angiogenesis, which are tightly regulated by a variety of factors, including Notch signaling. In this review, we summarize the recent progress regarding the functional roles of Notch signaling in glioma, including Notch ligand, microRNA, intracellular crosstalk, glioma stem-like cells and active angiogenesis and explore their clinical implications as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers and molecular therapeutic targets for glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Du Yan
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
| | - Chen Hao
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
| | - Li Xiao-Feng
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
| | - Lu Yu-Chen
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
| | - Feng Yu-Bin
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
| | - Zhang Lei
- Department of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Major Autoimmune Diseases, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Innovative Drugs, Hefei, China
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Trinh AL, Chen H, Chen Y, Hu Y, Li Z, Siegel ER, Linskey ME, Wang PH, Digman MA, Zhou YH. Tracking Functional Tumor Cell Subpopulations of Malignant Glioma by Phasor Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy of NADH. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9120168. [PMID: 29211022 PMCID: PMC5742816 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9120168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Intra-tumoral heterogeneity is associated with therapeutic resistance of cancer and there exists a need to non-invasively identify functional tumor subpopulations responsible for tumor recurrence. Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) is a metabolic coenzyme essential in cellular respiration. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) of NADH has been demonstrated to be a powerful label-free indicator for inferring metabolic states of living cells. Using FLIM, we identified a significant shift towards longer NADH fluorescence lifetimes, suggesting an increase in the fraction of protein-bound NADH, in the invasive stem-like tumor-initiating cell (STIC) subpopulation relative to the tumor mass-forming cell (TMC) subpopulation of malignant gliomas. By applying our previously studied model to transition glioma from a majority of STIC to a majority of TMC in serum-adherent culture conditions following serial passages, we compared changes in NADH states, cellular respirations (oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis), EGFR expression, and cell-growth speed over passages. We identified a significant positive correlation between free-NADH fraction and cell growth, which was related to an increase of TMC fraction. In comparison, the increase of EGFR and cellular respirations preceded all these changes. In conclusion, FLIM of NADH provides a non-invasive method to monitor the dynamics of tumor heterogeneity before and after treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L Trinh
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Hongtao Chen
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Yumay Chen
- UC Irvine Diabetes Center and Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Yuanjie Hu
- UC Irvine Brain Tumor Laboratory and Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Zhenzhi Li
- UC Irvine Brain Tumor Laboratory and Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Eric R Siegel
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
| | - Mark E Linskey
- UC Irvine Brain Tumor Laboratory and Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Ping H Wang
- UC Irvine Diabetes Center and Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Michelle A Digman
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Yi-Hong Zhou
- UC Irvine Brain Tumor Laboratory and Department of Surgery, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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6
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Li Y, Hu Y, Liu C, Wang Q, Han X, Han Y, Xie XS, Chen XH, Li X, Siegel ER, Afrasiabi K, Linskey ME, Zhou YX, Zhou YH. Human fibulin-3 protein variant expresses anti-cancer effects in the malignant glioma extracellular compartment in intracranial xenograft models. Oncotarget 2017; 8:106311-106323. [PMID: 29290950 PMCID: PMC5739735 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Decades of cytotoxic and more recently immunotherapy treatments for malignant glioma have had limited success due to dynamic intra-tumoral heterogeneity. The dynamic interplay of cancer cell subpopulations has been found to be under the control of proteins in the cancer microenvironment. EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular matrix protein (EFEMP1) (also fibulin-3) has the multiple functions of suppressing cancer growth and angiogenesis, while promoting cancer cell invasion. EFEMP1-derived tumor suppressor protein (ETSP) retains EFEMP1’s anti-growth and anti-angiogenic functions while actually inhibiting cancer cell invasion. Methods In this study, we examined the therapeutic effect on glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) of an in vitro synthesized protein, ZR30, which is based on the sequence of ETSP, excluding the signaling peptide. Results ZR30 showed the same effects as ETSP in blocking EGFR/NOTCH/AKT signaling pathways, when applied to cultures of multiple GBM cell lines and primary cultures. ZR30’s inhibition of MMP2 activation was shown not only for GBM cells, but also for other types of cancer cells having overexpression of MMP2. A significant improvement in survival of mice with orthotopic human GBM xenografts was observed after a single, intra-tumoral injection of ZR30. Using a model mimicking the intra-tumoral heterogeneity of GBM with cell subpopulations carrying different invasive and proliferative phenotypes, we demonstrated an equal and simultaneous tumor suppressive effect of ZR30 on both tumor cell subpopulations, with suppression of FOXM1 and activation of SEMA3B expressions in the xenografts. Conclusion Overall, the data support a complementary pleiotrophic therapeutic effect of ZR30 acting in the extracellular compartment of GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyan Li
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Yuan Hu
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Chuanjin Liu
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Qingyue Wang
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Xiaoxiao Han
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Yong Han
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Xue-Shun Xie
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Xiong-Hui Chen
- Department of Emergency Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Neuroepigenetic Reseach Lab, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Eric R Siegel
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Kambiz Afrasiabi
- Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Mark E Linskey
- Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - You-Xin Zhou
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory
| | - Yi-Hong Zhou
- Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory.,Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Ziren Research, Irvine, CA, USA
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7
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Zhou YH, Hu Y, Yu L, Ke C, Vo C, Hsu H, Li Z, Di Donato AT, Chaturbedi A, Hwang JW, Siegel ER, Linskey ME. Weaponizing human EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular matrix protein 1 (EFEMP1) for 21 st century cancer therapeutics. Oncoscience 2016; 3:208-219. [PMID: 27713911 PMCID: PMC5043071 DOI: 10.18632/oncoscience.306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
De-regulated EFEMP1 gene expression in solid tumors has been widely reported with conflicting roles. We dissected EFEMP1 to identify domains responsible for its cell context-dependent dual functions, with the goal being to construct an EFEMP1-derived tumor-suppressor protein (ETSP) that lacked tumor-promoting function. Exon/intron boundaries of EFEMP1 were used as boundaries of functional modules in constructing EFEMP1 variants, with removal of various module(s), and/or mutating an amino acid residue to convert a weak integrin binding-site into a strong one. A series of in vitro assays on cancerous features, and subcutaneous and intracranial xenograft-formation assays, were carried out for effects from overexpression of wild-type and variant forms of EFEMP1 in two glioma subpopulations characterized as tumor mass-forming cells (TMCs) or stem-like tumor initiating cells (STICs), where EFEMP1 showed cellcontext- dependent dual functions. One of the EFEMP1 variants was identified as the sought-after ETSP, which had a stronger tumor-suppression function in TMCs by targeting EGFR and angiogenesis, and a new tumor-suppression function in STICs by targeting NOTCH signaling and MMP2-mediated cell invasion. Therefore, ETSP may form the basis for further important research to develop a novel cancer therapy to treat many types of cancer by its tumor suppressor effect in the extracellular matrix compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hong Zhou
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Yuanjie Hu
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Liping Yu
- Real-Time PCR, Ziren Research LLC, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Chao Ke
- Neurosurgery, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Christopher Vo
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Hao Hsu
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Zhenzhi Li
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Anne T Di Donato
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Abhishek Chaturbedi
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Ji Won Hwang
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Eric R Siegel
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Mark E Linskey
- Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Research Laboratory, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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