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Tews HC, Elger T, Grewal T, Weidlich S, Vitali F, Buechler C. Fecal and Urinary Adipokines as Disease Biomarkers. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11041186. [PMID: 37189804 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11041186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of biomarkers is of great clinical value for the diagnosis and prognosis of disease and the assessment of treatment efficacy. In this context, adipokines secreted from adipose tissue are of interest, as their elevated circulating levels are associated with a range of metabolic dysfunctions, inflammation, renal and hepatic diseases and cancers. In addition to serum, adipokines can also be detected in the urine and feces, and current experimental evidence on the analysis of fecal and urinary adipokine levels points to their potential as disease biomarkers. This includes increased urinary adiponectin, lipocalin-2, leptin and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in renal diseases and an association of elevated urinary chemerin as well as urinary and fecal lipocalin-2 levels with active inflammatory bowel diseases. Urinary IL-6 levels are also upregulated in rheumatoid arthritis and may become an early marker for kidney transplant rejection, while fecal IL-6 levels are increased in decompensated liver cirrhosis and acute gastroenteritis. In addition, galectin-3 levels in urine and stool may emerge as a biomarker for several cancers. With the analysis of urine and feces from patients being cost-efficient and non-invasive, the identification and utilization of adipokine levels as urinary and fecal biomarkers could become a great advantage for disease diagnosis and predicting treatment outcomes. This review article highlights data on the abundance of selected adipokines in urine and feces, underscoring their potential to serve as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hauke C Tews
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Tanja Elger
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Grewal
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Simon Weidlich
- Department of Internal Medicine II, School of Medicine, University Hospital Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Francesco Vitali
- Department of Medicine 1, Gastroenterology, Pneumology and Endocrinology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christa Buechler
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Gastroenterology, Hepatology, Endocrinology, Rheumatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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Morphological Assessment and Biomarkers of Low-Grade, Chronic Intestinal Inflammation in Production Animals. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12213036. [PMID: 36359160 PMCID: PMC9654368 DOI: 10.3390/ani12213036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Production animals are continuously exposed to environmental and dietary factors that might induce a state of low-grade, chronic intestinal inflammation. This condition compromises the productive performance and well-fare of these animals, requiring studies to understand what causes it and to develop control strategies. An intestinal inflammatory process is generally associated with alterations in the structure and functionality of its wall, resulting in the release of cellular components into the blood and/or feces. These components can act as biomarkers, i.e., they are measured to identify and quantify an inflammatory process without requiring invasive methods. In this review we discuss the mechanisms of low-grade inflammation, its effects on animal production and sustainability, and the identification of biomarkers that could provide early diagnosis of this process and support studies of useful interventional strategies. Abstract The complex interaction between the intestinal mucosa, the gut microbiota, and the diet balances the host physiological homeostasis and is fundamental for the maximal genetic potential of production animals. However, factors such as chemical and physical characteristics of the diet and/or environmental stressors can continuously affect this balance, potentially inducing a state of chronic low-grade inflammation in the gut, where inflammatory parameters are present and demanding energy, but not in enough intensity to provoke clinical manifestations. It’s vital to expand the understanding of inflammation dynamics and of how they compromise the function activity and microscopic morphology of the intestinal mucosa. These morphometric alterations are associated with the release of structural and functional cellular components into the feces and the blood stream creating measurable biomarkers to track this condition. Moreover, the identification of novel, immunometabolic biomarkers can provide dynamic and predictors of low-grade chronic inflammation, but also provide indicators of successful nutritional or feed additive intervention strategies. The objective of this paper is to review the mechanisms of low-grade inflammation, its effects on animal production and sustainability, and the biomarkers that could provide early diagnosis of this process and support studies of useful interventional strategies.
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Ramadori G. Albumin Infusion in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: Hemodilution and Anticoagulation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22137126. [PMID: 34281177 PMCID: PMC8268290 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypercoagulation is one of the major risk factors for ICU treatment, mechanical ventilation, and death in critically ill patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. At the same time, hypoalbuminemia is one risk factor in such patients, independent of age and comorbidities. Especially in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2-infection, albumin infusion may be essential to improve hemodynamics and to reduce the plasma level of the main marker of thromboembolism, namely, the D-dimer plasma level, as suggested by a recent report. Albumin is responsible for 80% of the oncotic pressure in the vessels. This is necessary to keep enough water within the systemic circulatory system and for the maintenance of sufficient blood pressure, as well as for sufficient blood supply for vital organs like the brain, lungs, heart, and kidney. The liver reacts to a decrease in oncotic pressure with an increase in albumin synthesis. This is normally possible through the use of amino acids from the proteins introduced with the nutrients reaching the portal blood. If these are not sufficiently provided with the diet, amino acids are delivered to the liver from muscular proteins by systemic circulation. The liver is also the source of coagulation proteins, such as fibrinogen, fibronectin, and most of the v WF VIII, which are physiological components of the extracellular matrix of the vessel wall. While albumin is the main negative acute-phase protein, fibrinogen, fibronectin, and v WF VIII are positive acute-phase proteins. Acute illnesses cause the activation of defense mechanisms (acute-phase reaction) that may lead to an increase of fibrinolysis and an increase of plasma level of fibrinogen breakdown products, mainly fibrin and D-dimer. The measurement of the plasma level of the D-dimer has been used as a marker for venous thromboembolism, where a fourfold increase of the D-dimer plasma level was used as a negative prognostic marker in critically ill SARS-CoV-2 hospitalized patients. Increased fibrinolysis can take place in ischemic peripheral sites, where the mentioned coagulation proteins can become part of the provisional clot (e.g., in the lungs). Although critically ill SARS-CoV-2-infected patients are considered septic shock patients, albumin infusions have not been considered for hemodynamic resuscitation and as anticoagulants. The role of coagulation factors as provisional components of the extracellular matrix in case of generalized peripheral ischemia due to hypoalbuminemia and hypovolemia is discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliano Ramadori
- Internal Medicine University Clinic, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Robert-Koch-Strasse 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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Britton GJ, Chen-Liaw A, Cossarini F, Livanos AE, Spindler MP, Plitt T, Eggers J, Mogno I, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Siu S, Tankelevich M, Grinspan LT, Dixon RE, Jha D, van de Guchte A, Khan Z, Martinez-Delgado G, Amanat F, Hoagland DA, tenOever BR, Dubinsky MC, Merad M, van Bakel H, Krammer F, Bongers G, Mehandru S, Faith JJ. Limited intestinal inflammation despite diarrhea, fecal viral RNA and SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA in patients with acute COVID-19. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13308. [PMID: 34172783 PMCID: PMC8233421 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92740-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal symptoms are common in COVID-19 patients but the nature of the gut immune response to SARS-CoV-2 remains poorly characterized, partly due to the difficulty of obtaining biopsy specimens from infected individuals. In lieu of tissue samples, we measured cytokines, inflammatory markers, viral RNA, microbiome composition, and antibody responses in stool samples from a cohort of 44 hospitalized COVID-19 patients. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in stool of 41% of patients and more frequently in patients with diarrhea. Patients who survived had lower fecal viral RNA than those who died. Strains isolated from stool and nasopharynx of an individual were the same. Compared to uninfected controls, COVID-19 patients had higher fecal levels of IL-8 and lower levels of fecal IL-10. Stool IL-23 was higher in patients with more severe COVID-19 disease, and we found evidence of intestinal virus-specific IgA responses associated with more severe disease. We provide evidence for an ongoing humeral immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the gastrointestinal tract, but little evidence of overt inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham J Britton
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Alice Chen-Liaw
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Francesca Cossarini
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Alexandra E Livanos
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Matthew P Spindler
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Tamar Plitt
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Joseph Eggers
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Ilaria Mogno
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Ana S Gonzalez-Reiche
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Sophia Siu
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Michael Tankelevich
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lauren Tal Grinspan
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Rebekah E Dixon
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Divya Jha
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Adriana van de Guchte
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Zenab Khan
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Gustavo Martinez-Delgado
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Fatima Amanat
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Daisy A Hoagland
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Virus Engineering Center for Therapeutics and Research, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Benjamin R tenOever
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Virus Engineering Center for Therapeutics and Research, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marla C Dubinsky
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Miriam Merad
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gerold Bongers
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Saurabh Mehandru
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Jeremiah J Faith
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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5
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Britton GJ, Chen-Liaw A, Cossarini F, Livanos AE, Spindler MP, Plitt T, Eggers J, Mogno I, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Siu S, Tankelevich M, Grinspan LT, Dixon RE, Jha D, van de Guchte A, Khan Z, Martinez-Delgado G, Amanat F, Hoagland DA, tenOever BR, Dubinsky MC, Merad M, van Bakel H, Krammer F, Bongers G, Mehandru S, Faith JJ. Limited intestinal inflammation despite diarrhea, fecal viral RNA and SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA in patients with acute COVID-19. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2020:2020.09.03.20183947. [PMID: 32909002 PMCID: PMC7480054 DOI: 10.1101/2020.09.03.20183947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We sought to characterize the role of the gastrointestinal immune system in the pathogenesis of the inflammatory response associated with COVID-19. We measured cytokines, inflammatory markers, viral RNA, microbiome composition and antibody responses in stool from a cohort of 44 hospitalized COVID-19 patients. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in stool of 41% of patients and more frequently in patients with diarrhea. Patients who survived had lower fecal viral RNA than those who died. Strains isolated from stool and nasopharynx of an individual were the same. Compared to uninfected controls, COVID-19 patients had higher fecal levels of IL-8 and lower levels of fecal IL-10. Stool IL-23 was higher in patients with more severe COVID-19 disease, and we found evidence of intestinal virus-specific IgA responses associated with more severe disease. We provide evidence for an ongoing humeral immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the gastrointestinal tract, but little evidence of overt inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham J. Britton
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Alice Chen-Liaw
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Francesca Cossarini
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Alexandra E. Livanos
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Matthew P. Spindler
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Tamar Plitt
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Joseph Eggers
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Ilaria Mogno
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Ana S. Gonzalez-Reiche
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Sophia Siu
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Michael Tankelevich
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Lauren Tal Grinspan
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Rebekah E. Dixon
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Divya Jha
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Adriana van de Guchte
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Zenab Khan
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Gustavo Martinez-Delgado
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Fatima Amanat
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, 10029
| | - Daisy A. Hoagland
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, 10029
- Virus Engineering Center for Therapeutics and Research, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Benjamin R. tenOever
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Virus Engineering Center for Therapeutics and Research, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marla C. Dubinsky
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Miriam Merad
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gerold Bongers
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Saurabh Mehandru
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- The Dr. Henry D. Janowitz Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
| | - Jeremiah J. Faith
- Precision Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029
- Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029
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