Coping with grief responses among African American family members of homicide victims

Traumatic loss: a systematic review of potential risk factors differentiating between posttraumatic stress disorder and prolonged grief disorder

Background: When traumatic events and losses intersect in the form of traumatic loss, these events can trigger both posttraumatic stress disorder and pathological grief.Objective: This systematic review investigates which characteristics differentiate between the development of the respective disorders or are associated with comorbidity.Method: A systematic literature search using Medline, PubMed, APA PsycInfo and Web of Science yielded 46 studies which met the inclusion criteria. In these studies, PTSD was assessed using 17 and pathological grief using 16 different validated instruments. In the quality assessment, 12 studies were classified as average, 30 as above average, and 4 as excellent. The investigated risk factors were categorized into 19 superordinate clusters and processed using narrative synthesis.Results: The relationship to the deceased, mental health issues, and religious beliefs seem to be associated specifically with pathological grief symptoms compared to PTSD symptoms. Social support and social emotions emerged as significant correlates and potential risk factors for both PTSD and pathological grief. Included studies had mainly cross-sectional designs.Conclusions: Differentiating factors between pathological grief and PTSD appear to exist. The results should be considered within the limitations of the heterogeneity of the included studies and the research field. There is a lack of studies (1) using a longitudinal study design, (2) starting data collection early following the traumatic loss, (3) using standardized, up-to-date measurement instruments and (4) including comorbidity in their analyses. Further research is urgently needed for more accurate (acute) screenings, prognoses, and interventions following traumatic loss.

An Ecological Review of Homicide Bereavement's Risk Factors: Implications for Future Research

This literature review focused on homicide bereavement (HB) risk factors. A content analysis was conducted on 83 empirical papers published in English from January 2000 to December 2021 in peer-reviewed journals. Extracted HB risk factors were synthesized according to six main dimensions: individual level; situational homicide-related factors; and micro, meso, exo, and macro social levels. The review demonstrates that macro-level and situational homicide-related risk factors are in special need of further study. In addition, how HB risk factors interact with one another to influence HB also requires further study. Future research may benefit from examining whether and how individuals experiencing HB influence related factors at various social levels. Last, given that almost all reviewed studies were conducted in Western societies, the sociocultural and ethnic diversity in HB risk factors is in dire need of future study.

Homicide Mortality Inequities in the 30 Biggest Cities in the U.S

INTRODUCTION

Homicide is a leading cause of death across the U.S., and it disproportionally affects Blacks in urban areas. This study fills a gap in the literature by examining homicide mortality and Black-White homicide disparities in the 30 biggest U.S. cities and for the entire U.S. across 2 time periods (2008-2012 and 2013-2017).

METHODS

Using data from the National Vital Statistics System for 2008-2017, this study calculated age-adjusted homicide mortality rates (per 100,000) for the total, White, and Black populations in the 30 biggest cities, and the U.S. Black-to-White rate ratios were calculated to examine homicide mortality across the time periods. Data were analyzed in 2020.

RESULTS

A total of 26 cities were included in the final analysis. Results show that U.S. homicides increased slightly but significantly across the time periods (p<0.05). A total of 6 cities saw significant increases in homicides and 5 saw significant decreases. Homicide mortality rates were 1.8 times to >20 times greater for Blacks than for Whites, and these disparities persisted across the time periods for most cities. Only 2 of 26 cities had mortality rates and racial inequities in rates that were lower than the national average.

CONCLUSIONS

Homicide mortality increased slightly across the U.S. and most cities from 2008 to 2017. The majority of cities faced high homicide mortality rates and large inequities. Black-White disparities in homicide remain substantial at the national and city levels. These findings can inform city leaders in their efforts to address the homicide, violence, and racial inequities associated with them through the implementation of policies and programs.

Signs of Traumatic Grief, Lack of Justice, Magnitude of Loss, and Signs of Resilience Following the Homicidal Loss of Their Adult Child Among Caribbean Black Mothers

This study examined the aftermath of adult homicide on Trinidadian mothers. This is an understudied population, and the ability of these mothers to cope with the aftermath of such a tragedy needs to be fully acknowledged in order to understand their mental health status after the traumatic death of an adult child. This study utilized a narrative analysis approach to interview 20 mothers and used NVIVO 12 software to analyze the data. The findings highlight that factors such as multiple deaths, the scale of loss, and attempts to seek justice complicated the grief process. Although none of the mothers interviewed were diagnosed with a grief disorder, it was evident that their grief was indeed traumatic. It took more than a year for some mothers to find ways and opportunities for resilience, while others continue to struggle in the aftermath. Homicidally bereaved mothers are a distinct population that should be studied as they have the experiential knowledge and are willing to share the feelings and trauma-related needs after their loss.

Closure and Justice: A Qualitative Study of Perspectives From Homicide Survivorship Experts

The criminal justice system and the media perpetuate the rhetoric of closure, which frames the end of grief for homicide survivors, or murder victims' loved ones, as an attainable goal on their path to healing. Public discourse has also framed the death penalty as justice for survivors. However, little scholarly attention has addressed survivors' experiences and perceptions of closure and justice. This research addresses this gap in the literature using in-depth, qualitative interviews with 36 community, academic, and criminal justice experts on homicide survivorship, 12 of whom are homicide survivors themselves. Using grounded theory, we derived six themes on closure and justice from the data. The majority of respondents indicate that survivors do not experience closure, and that they consider the term misleading. The question as to the meaning of justice produced more disparate responses. While many indicated that justice has unique meanings for individual survivors, holding the perpetrator accountable emerged as the most common theme. Half of the respondents also indicated that justice does not exist in homicide cases because of their difficult experiences with the criminal justice system. The findings have implications for policy, practice, and future research.

History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks

Exposure to trauma increases the long-term risk of mortality, and experiencing non-fatal physical assault is not an exception. To better understand population heterogeneity in this link, the current study explored Black–White differences in the association between history of non-fatal physical assault and risk of all-cause mortality over a 25-year period in the United States. Data came from the Americans’ Changing Lives (ACL) study that followed 3617 non-institutionalized respondents for up to 25 years. History of non-fatal physical assault at baseline was the predictor. Outcome was time to death due to all-cause mortality during follow-up from baseline (1986) to follow-up (2011). Confounders included gender, age, and baseline socio-economic status (education and income), health behaviors (smoking and drinking), and health status (chronic medical conditions, self-rated health, and body mass index). Race was the moderator. Cox regressions were used for multi-variable analysis. History of non-fatal physical assault at baseline was associated with an increased risk of mortality, above and beyond baseline socioeconomic status, health behaviors, and health status. Race interacted with history of non-fatal physical assault on mortality, suggesting a stronger effect for Whites compared to Blacks. In race-specific models, history of non-fatal physical assault was associated with risk of mortality for Whites but not Blacks. The current study showed that experiencing non-fatal physical assault increases the risk of premature death above and beyond demographics, socioeconomic status, health behaviors, and health status. Experiencing non-fatal physical assault may have a larger effect on premature mortality among Whites than Blacks. Future research is needed on how Blacks and Whites differ in the health consequences of social adversities.

The Development of a Culturally Adapted Pilot Intervention for African American Family Members of Homicide Victims: A Preliminary Report

African Americans are disproportionately impacted by homicide in the United States. Individuals who have lost a relative to homicide often experience symptoms of complicated grief. The objective of this study was to explore the impact of a culturally tailored psychoeducational pilot intervention whose development was informed by a conceptual model of coping for African American survivors of homicide victims and was designed to (a) educate participants about the manifestation of complicated grief and symptoms and (b) help participants develop ways to cope with their grief. Pre- and post-test results indicate preliminary support for this encouraging intervention in achieving its intended outcomes to help participants identify complicated grief symptoms, supports, and services to help them manage their grief. Implications for posthomicide research and practice are discussed.

Understanding the sociocultural context of coping for African American family members of homicide victims: a conceptual model

The disproportionate representation of African American survivors of homicide victims places them at greater risk for compromised mental health. However, an examination of factors that influence how this population copes with this traumatic event is absent from the literature. This article elucidates the importance of sociocultural factors that influence coping resources and strategies for African Americans surviving the homicide of a loved one. A socioculturally responsive model of coping is presented that can be utilized in furthering the development of research and practice that is culturally responsive to the needs of African American survivors of homicide victims.