Epilepsy in Irish Wolfhounds

Phenotypic characterization and quality of life of Labradoodles with idiopathic epilepsy and epilepsy of unknown cause

Introduction

Idiopathic epilepsy (IE) is a common chronic neurological disorder in dogs. Breed specific knowledge on semiology, age of onset (AoO), seizure frequency, response to treatment, and Quality of Life (QoL) scores for both dog and owner are important. The Labradoodle is originally a cross between the Labrador Retriever and Standard Poodle. The aim of this study was to describe in detail the epilepsy, that is recognized in this designer breed.

Method

An online survey was distributed through several platforms to owners of Labradoodles. Only Labradoodles, either registered as such or bred as a Labradoodle were included. To classify the Labradoodles in a TIER level of confidence the criteria of the International Veterinary Task Force were used.

Results

Forty labradoodles were included. Thirty-three Labradoodles were classified as IE or suspected IE cases and appeared to have an AoO of 2.3 ± 1.3 years, and a seizure frequency of 5.4 ± 6.5 seizures/year (range 0-25). Seven dogs were classified as EUC, two dogs started before 6 months of age, and five dogs had their first seizures at 8.4 ± 1.2 years of age. The seizure frequency for all EUC dogs was 5.0 ± 3.0 seizures/year (range 0-11). Stress, for both the (suspected) IE and EUC cases, was the most frequently reported seizure precipitating factor (95% of the dogs). AoO and seizure frequency did not seem to be influenced by type of housing, type of owner, or the dog's character as interpreted by the owner. Cluster seizures (CS) were seen in 33% and status epilepticus (SE) in 10% of the included Labradoodles. Many dogs did not need treatment (38%) or only one anti-seizure medication (43%), in which case they tended to respond favorably to treatment. QoL scores were high for both dog (8.3 ± 1.8) and owner (7.3 ± 2.2).

Discussion

Compared to the progenitor breeds, epilepsy of Labradoodles is phenotypically like that of the Standard Poodle, except for the existence CS and SE in the Labradoodle. The epilepsy seen in this designer breed has a favorable outcome compared to several other breeds.

Probable Sudden Unexpected Death in Dogs With Epilepsy (pSUDED)

Sudden unexpected death in human epileptic patients (SUDEP) is defined as death related to recurrent unprovoked seizures, death occurring unexpectedly, and suddenly in a patient with reasonable state of health, without an obvious medical cause of death, trauma, asphyxia, or intractable status epilepticus, and in post mortem examination no obvious reason for death can be found. “Probable SUDEP” (pSUDEP) is defined as SUDEP not confirmed pathologically. The adapted abbreviation for dogs is used in the following: “pSUDED” (probable sudden unexpected death in dogs with epilepsy). The aim of the present monocentric retrospective study using an online questionnaire was to evaluate the occurrence of pSUDED. Data of canine patients presented with seizures between 01/1998 and 05/2018 were retrospectively analyzed and classified according to their etiology (n = 1,503). Owners were contacted by telephone to participate in answering a validated questionnaire. A total of 509 owners were reached, and 373 owners completed the questionnaire. In addition to signalement (e.g., breed), special attention was paid to the frequency and presentation of seizures and seizures in the context of death. Fifty-one percent (191/373) of the dogs were dead at the endpoint of the study. A large proportion of the dogs was euthanized (149/191) because of seizure severity or health problems unrelated to seizures. Idiopathic epilepsy (IE) was diagnosed in 19/34 dogs which died unexpectedly. Of these seven animals had to be excluded for further investigation of pSUDED because of status epilepticus or aspiration pneumonia as a result of the seizures. In 12 dogs with IE the last seizure event occurred between 6 h and ~3 months before death. pSUDED was suspected in these dogs and an occurrence rate of 4.5–10% was calculated. pSUDED appears in a similar occurrence rate as human SUDEP and should be considered as a possible complication in epileptic dogs. The results of this study suggest that dogs with IE but especially those with brachycephalic syndrome and cluster seizures have an increased risk to die of pSUDED. Owners of dogs with seizures should be educated about the risk of sudden death in dogs with epilepsy.

Seizure occurrence in dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK: prevalence and risk factors

Background

Primary‐care veterinary clinical records can offer data to determine generalizable epidemiological data on seizures occurrence in the dog population.

Objectives

To identify and examine epidemiologic characteristics of seizure occurrence in dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK participating in the VetCompass™ Programme.

Animals

455,553 dogs in VetCompass™’.

Methods

A cross‐sectional analysis estimated the 1‐year period prevalence and risk factors for dogs with seizures during 2013.

Results

The overall 1‐year period prevalence for dogs having at least one seizure during 2013 was 0.82% (95% CI 0.79‐0.84). Multivariable modelling identified breeds with elevated odd ratios [OR] compared with the Labrador Retriever (e.g. Pug OR: 3.41 95% CI 2.71‐4.28, P < 0.001). Males had higher risk for seizures (Male/Entire OR: 1.47 95% CI 1.30–1.66; Male/Neutered OR: 1.34 95% CI 1.19–1.51) compared to entire females. Age (3.00 ‐ ≤ 6.00 OR: 2.13 95% CI 1.90‐2.39, P < 0.001, compared to animals aged 0.50–≤ 3.00 years), and bodyweight (≥ 40.00kg, OR: 1.24 95% CI 1.08–1.41, P = 0.002, compared to animals weighing < 10.0 kg) were identified as risk factors for seizures.

Conclusion and clinical Importance

Seizures are a relatively common clinical finding in dogs. The results for breed, age, sex and bodyweight as risk factors can assist veterinarians in refining differential diagnosis lists for dogs reported with behaviors that may have been seizures. In addition, the prevalence values reported here can support pharmacovigilance with baseline data from the overall population.

Clinical Risk Factors for Early Seizure Recurrence in Dogs Hospitalized for Seizure Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Epileptic seizures are a common cause for neurological evaluations in dogs.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To determine the timing, frequency, and risk factors for early seizure recurrence (ESR) among dogs admitted to the hospital for seizure evaluation and to facilitate rapid decision making about whether dogs should be placed in the intensive care unit (ICU) or day ward.

ANIMALS

Nine-hundred twenty-two dogs referred for seizure investigation; 214 patients were included.

METHODS

Retrospective study. Medical records between 2000 and 2017 were reviewed to determine risk factors for ESR. Findings were compared among dogs diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy (IE), structural epilepsy (StE) and reactive seizures (RS), as well as in all selected cases together.

RESULTS

Fifty percent of dogs had a seizure while hospitalized. In the group 53.1 and 52.2% in the StE group, whereas in the RS 40.44% had ESR. The average time to ESR was 7 hours. In IE group, abnormal postictal neurological examination with prosencephalon signs predicted ESR. In StE group, a single generalized or focal seizure 72 hours before hospital admission and abnormal neurologic examination predicted ESR. In the RS group, ERS was predicted by long-term antiepileptic monotheraphy. When all dogs were analyzed together, abnormal neurological examination, the occurrence of cluster seizures, status epilepticus, or combination of them 72 hours before presentation predicted ESR.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Epileptic seizures recurred in 50% of patients within a mean time of 7 hours. In general, when cluster seizures, status epilepticus or both occurred 72 hours before presentation and neurological examination was abnormal upon presentation, the dog should be placed in ICU for observation.

ADAM23 is a common risk gene for canine idiopathic epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic or genetic adult-onset epilepsy is a common neurological disorder in domestic dogs. Genetic association has been reported only with ADAM23 on CFA 37 in few breeds. To identify novel epilepsy genes, we performed genome-wide association (GWA) analyses in four new breeds, and investigated the association of the previously reported ADAM23 haplotype with the epilepsy phenotype in eight breeds.

RESULTS

GWA analysis did not reveal new epilepsy loci. ADAM23 association (p < 0.05) was identified in five breeds. Combined analysis of all eight breeds showed significant association (p = 4.6e^-6, OR 1.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results further support the role of ADAM23 in multiple breeds as a common risk gene for epilepsy with low penetrance. The lack of findings in the GWA analyses points towards inefficient capture of genetic variation by the current SNP arrays, causal variant(s) with low penetrance and possible phenocopies. Future work will include studies on ADAM23 function and expression in canine neurons, as well as whole-genome sequencing in order to identify additional IE genes.

Complex disease and phenotype mapping in the domestic dog

The domestic dog is becoming an increasingly valuable model species in medical genetics, showing particular promise to advance our understanding of cancer and orthopaedic disease. Here we undertake the largest canine genome-wide association study to date, with a panel of over 4,200 dogs genotyped at 180,000 markers, to accelerate mapping efforts. For complex diseases, we identify loci significantly associated with hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, idiopathic epilepsy, lymphoma, mast cell tumour and granulomatous colitis; for morphological traits, we report three novel quantitative trait loci that influence body size and one that influences fur length and shedding. Using simulation studies, we show that modestly larger sample sizes and denser marker sets will be sufficient to identify most moderate- to large-effect complex disease loci. This proposed design will enable efficient mapping of canine complex diseases, most of which have human homologues, using far fewer samples than required in human studies.

The domestic dog is an important model organism for our understanding of cancer and other diseases. Here the authors conduct a genome-wide association study across multiple breeds and identify novel loci significantly associated with several complex diseases and morphological traits.

Clinical characteristics of epilepsy of unknown origin in the Rottweiler breed

Background

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological conditions in dogs. Despite that epilepsy appears to be common in the Rottweiler breed, published literature about the phenotype of epilepsy in this breed is lacking. The aim of this questionnaire-based study was to describe the clinical characteristics of epilepsy in the Rottweiler breed including; signalment, pedigree, housing conditions and information about the seizures such as age at onset, seizure type, duration, and progression, as well as number of seizure days (24 h), effect and side effects of anti-epileptic drugs, and potential comorbidities. The diagnosis for epilepsy of unknown origin was based on the following inclusion criteria: ≥2 seizure days, starting between 6 months and 7 years of age, no known history of poisoning or serious head trauma, and (when available), pre-study routine serum biochemical parameters were within the reference intervals.

Results

A total of 37 cases (23 females and 14 males) were included in the study. The median age at onset of seizures was 36 months (range 8–84 months). The dogs suffered from generalized tonic–clonic seizures, and more than 50 % of the dogs had experienced cluster seizures (>1 seizure in 24 h). The dogs commonly started to seizure while resting (23/36) and/or sleeping (20/36). Only 3 of the 36 dogs experienced seizures during activities such as walking or training. All of the 24/37 (64.9 %) dogs on antiepileptic drugs received phenobarbital. Five dogs needed add-on treatment (n = 5), and of these: one dog was on 3 drugs (phenobarbital, potassium bromid and levetiracetam) (n = 1), three dogs were on phenobarbital and potassium bromide (n = 3), and one dog received phenobarbital and imepitoin (n = 1). Seizure frequency did not necessarily improve following antiepileptic treatment, and for six of 21 (28.6 %) of the dogs, seizure frequency increased. All of the Rottweilers in this study had relatives with epilepsy reported.

Conclusions

The Rottweilers suffering from epilepsy in this study presented with generalized tonic–clonic seizures, and their response to antiepileptic treatment was variable. More than 50 % of the dogs had experienced cluster seizures (>1 seizure in 24 h).

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13028-015-0168-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A randomised trial of a medium-chain TAG diet as treatment for dogs with idiopathic epilepsy

Despite appropriate antiepileptic drug treatment, approximately one-third of humans and dogs with epilepsy continue experiencing seizures, emphasising the importance for new treatment strategies to improve the quality of life of people or dogs with epilepsy. A 6-month prospective, randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over dietary trial was designed to compare a ketogenic medium-chain TAG diet (MCTD) with a standardised placebo diet in chronically antiepileptic drug-treated dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. Dogs were fed either MCTD or placebo diet for 3 months followed by a subsequent respective switch of diet for a further 3 months. Seizure frequency, clinical and laboratory data were collected and evaluated for twenty-one dogs completing the study. Seizure frequency was significantly lower when dogs were fed the MCTD (2·31/month, 0-9·89/month) in comparison with the placebo diet (2·67/month, 0·33-22·92/month, P=0·020); three dogs achieved seizure freedom, seven additional dogs had ≥50 % reduction in seizure frequency, five had an overall <50 % reduction in seizures (38·87 %, 35·68-43·27 %) and six showed no response. Seizure day frequency were also significantly lower when dogs were fed the MCTD (1·63/month, 0-7·58/month) in comparison with the placebo diet (1·69/month, 0·33-13·82/month, P=0·022). Consumption of the MCTD also resulted in significant elevation of blood β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in comparison with placebo diet (0·071 (sd 0·035) v. 0·053 (sd 0·028) mmol/l, P=0·028). There were no significant changes in serum concentrations of glucose (P=0·903), phenobarbital (P=0·422), potassium bromide (P=0·404) and weight (P=0·300) between diet groups. In conclusion, the data show antiepileptic properties associated with ketogenic diets and provide evidence for the efficacy of the MCTD used in this study as a therapeutic option for epilepsy treatment.

International veterinary epilepsy task force consensus report on epilepsy definition, classification and terminology in companion animals

Dogs with epilepsy are among the commonest neurological patients in veterinary practice and therefore have historically attracted much attention with regard to definitions, clinical approach and management. A number of classification proposals for canine epilepsy have been published during the years reflecting always in parts the current proposals coming from the human epilepsy organisation the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE). It has however not been possible to gain agreed consensus, "a common language", for the classification and terminology used between veterinary and human neurologists and neuroscientists, practitioners, neuropharmacologists and neuropathologists. This has led to an unfortunate situation where different veterinary publications and textbook chapters on epilepsy merely reflect individual author preferences with respect to terminology, which can be confusing to the readers and influence the definition and diagnosis of epilepsy in first line practice and research studies.In this document the International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force (IVETF) discusses current understanding of canine epilepsy and presents our 2015 proposal for terminology and classification of epilepsy and epileptic seizures. We propose a classification system which reflects new thoughts from the human ILAE but also roots in former well accepted terminology. We think that this classification system can be used by all stakeholders.

International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force's current understanding of idiopathic epilepsy of genetic or suspected genetic origin in purebred dogs

Canine idiopathic epilepsy is a common neurological disease affecting both purebred and crossbred dogs. Various breed-specific cohort, epidemiological and genetic studies have been conducted to date, which all improved our knowledge and general understanding of canine idiopathic epilepsy, and in particular our knowledge of those breeds studied. However, these studies also frequently revealed differences between the investigated breeds with respect to clinical features, inheritance and prevalence rates. Awareness and observation of breed-specific differences is important for successful management of the dog with epilepsy in everyday clinical practice and furthermore may promote canine epilepsy research. The following manuscript reviews the evidence available for breeds which have been identified as being predisposed to idiopathic epilepsy with a proven or suspected genetic background, and highlights different breed specific clinical features (e.g. age at onset, sex, seizure type), treatment response, prevalence rates and proposed inheritance reported in the literature. In addition, certain breed-specific diseases that may act as potential differentials for idiopathic epilepsy are highlighted.

Idiopathic epilepsy in the Italian Spinone in the United Kingdom: prevalence, clinical characteristics, and predictors of survival and seizure remission

Background

There is lack of data on idiopathic epilepsy (IE) in the Italian Spinone (IS).

Objectives

To estimate the prevalence of IE in the IS in the United Kingdom (UK) and to investigate predictors of survival and seizure remission.

Animals

The target population consisted of 3331 IS born between 2000 and 2011 and registered with the UK Kennel Club (KC). The owners of 1192 dogs returned phase I questionnaire. Sixty‐three IS had IE.

Methods

Population survey. The owners of all UK KC‐registered IS were invited to complete the phase I questionnaire. Information from the phase I questionnaire and veterinary medical records was used to identify IS with IE and obtain data on treatment and survival. Additional information was obtained from owners of epileptic IS who completed the phase II questionnaire.

Results

The prevalence of IE in the IS in the UK was estimated as 5.3% (95% CI, 4.03–6.57%). Survival time was significantly shorter in IS euthanized because of poorly controlled IE compared with epileptic IS that died of unrelated disorders (P = 0.001). Survival was significantly longer in IS with no cluster seizures (CS) (P = 0.040) and in IS in which antiepileptic medication was initiated after the second seizure rather than after ≥3 seizures (P = 0.044). Seizure remission occurred only in 3 IS.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

The prevalence of IE in IS (5.3%) is higher than in dogs (0.6%) in the UK. Idiopathic epilepsy in IS has a severe phenotype. Antiepileptic medication initiation after the second seizure and aggressive treatment of CS may improve survival.

Risk factors for survival in a university hospital population of dogs with epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Although a common neurological disorder in dogs, long-term outcome of epilepsy is sparsely documented.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate risk factors for survival and duration of survival in a population of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy or epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause.

ANIMALS

One hundred and two client owned dogs; 78 dogs with idiopathic epilepsy and 24 dogs with epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause.

METHODS

A retrospective hospital based study with follow-up. Dogs diagnosed with epilepsy between 2002 and 2008 were enrolled in the study. Owners were interviewed by telephone using a structured questionnaire addressing epilepsy status, treatment, death/alive, and cause of death.

RESULTS

Median life span was 7.6 years, 9.2 years, and 5.8 years for all dogs, and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy or dogs with epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause (P < .001), respectively. Survival time for dogs with idiopathic epilepsy was significantly (P = .0030) decreased for dogs euthanized because of epilepsy (median: 35 months) compared to dogs euthanized for other reasons (median: 67.5 months). Neutered male dogs with idiopathic epilepsy had a significant (P = .031) shorter survival (median: 38.5 months) after index seizure compared to intact male dogs (median: 71 months). Treatment with two antiepileptic drugs (AED's) did not negatively influence survival (P = .056).

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Dogs with idiopathic epilepsy can in many cases expect a life span close to what is reported for dogs in general. In dogs where mono-therapy is not sufficient, the need for treatment with two AED's is not linked to a poor prognosis.

Phenotype, inheritance characteristics, and risk factors for idiopathic epilepsy in Finnish Spitz dogs

OBJECTIVE

To determine the phenotype, inheritance characteristics, and risk factors for idiopathic epilepsy (IE) in Finnish Spitz dogs (FSDs).

DESIGN

Prospective epidemiological study.

ANIMALS

2,141 FSDs.

PROCEDURES

From 2003 to 2004, questionnaires (n = 5,960) were sent to all owners of 1-to 10-year-old FSDs in Finland. Phone interviews were performed 1 to 2 years later.

RESULTS

Estimated prevalence of IE was 5.36% (111/2,069 of FSDs that were still alive). Males were predisposed to IE. The median age of onset was 3 years (range, 0.6 to 10 years). The median seizure frequency was 2 seizures/y (range, 0.5 to 48 seizures/y), and the median duration of the seizure episode was 11.75 minutes (range, 1.5 to 90 minutes). The majority (85%) of the seizures had a focal onset, and 54% were characterized as generalized secondary. A generalized seizure phase was determined to be a risk factor for development of progressive disease. Factors associated with the occurrence of a generalized phase were the age of onset, duration of the seizure, number of feeding times per day, and whether the dog was used for hunting. The seizures were not progressing in 678% of the dogs and were easily controlled by antiepileptic treatment in 78.9% of the dogs. The heritability estimate of IE in FSDs was 0.22; IE was best explained as a polygenic trait.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In the present study conducted in Finland, complex focal seizures were the most common seizure type for FSDs with IE, and a generalized seizure phase was a risk factor for progression of the disease. Results suggested a benign course of epilepsy in FSDs.

Identification of a novel idiopathic epilepsy locus in Belgian Shepherd dogs

Epilepsy is the most common neurological disorder in dogs, with an incidence ranging from 0.5% to up to 20% in particular breeds. Canine epilepsy can be etiologically defined as idiopathic or symptomatic. Epileptic seizures may be classified as focal with or without secondary generalization, or as primary generalized. Nine genes have been identified for symptomatic (storage diseases) and one for idiopathic epilepsy in different breeds. However, the genetic background of common canine epilepsies remains unknown. We have studied the clinical and genetic background of epilepsy in Belgian Shepherds. We collected 159 cases and 148 controls and confirmed the presence of epilepsy through epilepsy questionnaires and clinical examinations. The MRI was normal while interictal EEG revealed abnormalities and variable foci in the clinically examined affected dogs. A genome-wide association study using Affymetrix 50K SNP arrays in 40 cases and 44 controls mapped the epilepsy locus on CFA37, which was replicated in an independent cohort (81 cases and 88 controls; combined p = 9.70×10⁻¹⁰, OR = 3.3). Fine mapping study defined a ∼1 Mb region including 12 genes of which none are known epilepsy genes or encode ion channels. Exonic sequencing was performed for two candidate genes, KLF7 and ADAM23. No variation was found in KLF7 but a highly-associated non-synonymous variant, G1203A (R387H) was present in the ADAM23 gene (p = 3.7×10⁻⁸, OR = 3.9 for homozygosity). Homozygosity for a two-SNP haplotype within the ADAM23 gene conferred the highest risk for epilepsy (p = 6.28×10⁻¹¹, OR = 7.4). ADAM23 interacts with known epilepsy proteins LGI1 and LGI2. However, our data suggests that the ADAM23 variant is a polymorphism and we have initiated a targeted re-sequencing study across the locus to identify the causative mutation. It would establish the affected breed as a novel therapeutic model, help to develop a DNA test for breeding purposes and introduce a novel candidate gene for human idiopathic epilepsies.

Candidate genes for idiopathic epilepsy in four dog breeds

Background

Idiopathic epilepsy (IE) is a naturally occurring and significant seizure disorder affecting all dog breeds. Because dog breeds are genetically isolated populations, it is possible that IE is attributable to common founders and is genetically homogenous within breeds. In humans, a number of mutations, the majority of which are genes encoding ion channels, neurotransmitters, or their regulatory subunits, have been discovered to cause rare, specific types of IE. It was hypothesized that there are simple genetic bases for IE in some purebred dog breeds, specifically in Vizslas, English Springer Spaniels (ESS), Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs (GSMD), and Beagles, and that the gene(s) responsible may, in some cases, be the same as those already discovered in humans.

Results

Candidate genes known to be involved in human epilepsy, along with selected additional genes in the same gene families that are involved in murine epilepsy or are expressed in neural tissue, were examined in populations of affected and unaffected dogs. Microsatellite markers in close proximity to each candidate gene were genotyped and subjected to two-point linkage in Vizslas, and association analysis in ESS, GSMD and Beagles.

Conclusions

Most of these candidate genes were not significantly associated with IE in these four dog breeds, while a few genes remained inconclusive. Other genes not included in this study may still be causing monogenic IE in these breeds or, like many cases of human IE, the disease in dogs may be likewise polygenic.

Prevalence and characteristics of epilepsy in the Belgian shepherd variants Groenendael and Tervueren born in Denmark 1995-2004

BACKGROUND

The Belgian shepherd Groenendael and Tervueren is believed to be at higher risk of developing epilepsy than dogs of the common population. This epidemiological study was designed to estimate the prevalence of epilepsy in the Danish population of Groenendael and Tervueren born between 1995 and 2004. Furthermore, it was the intention to describe the clinical manifestation (seizure types and phenomenology) of epilepsy and to identify risk factors for euthanasia once the dog was diagnosed as having epilepsy.

METHODS

All owners of Groenendael and Tervueren dogs born between January 1995 and December 2004 and registered in the Danish Kennel Club (1,248 dogs) were contacted and asked to answer a mailed questionnaire concerning epilepsy. Positive responders were subsequently validated in a follow-up interview conducted by telephone using a standardized questionnaire. Owners were questioned about age at first seizure, seizure frequency, seizure duration, a detailed description of seizure phenomenology, post-ictal signs and if a veterinarian had diagnosed the dog with epilepsy.

RESULTS

Prevalence of epilepsy was estimated at 9.5%. Mean age of epilepsy debut was 3.3 years (range 0.5-8.0 years). There was an almost equal number of Groenendael (25) and Tervueren (24). The distribution of females and males was 31 and 18 respectively. Twenty-five per cent experienced focal seizures, 53% experienced focal seizures with secondary generalization and 18% experienced primary generalized seizures. In four percent seizures were unclassifiable. The most commonly reported focal seizure phenomenology included ataxia, crawling, swaying, fearful behavior, salivation, excessive attention seeking and disorientation. In 16% of the cases, epilepsy led to euthanasia. Intact dogs with epilepsy had a significantly increased risk of being euthanized because of epilepsy compared to neutered dogs with epilepsy. In 22% of the cases the owners reported that anxiety/hyperactivity/stress could act as a seizure provoking factor.

CONCLUSION

A high prevalence of epilepsy appears to be present in the Danish Groenendael and Tervueren population. The relatively late debut age of epilepsy in this breed contributes greatly to the increased prevalence of epileptic individuals, because dogs developing epilepsy late in life are used for breeding unintended.