Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges

Choice versus no choice: Practical considerations for increasing choices

Choice involves engaging in a selection response when multiple options are concurrently available. Choices can be incorporated into many components of behavior-analytic treatment such as providing clients with a choice between multiple items, activities, or tasks. We reviewed the main characteristics of 38 behavior-analytic articles that compared choice and no-choice conditions. We coded the experimental arrangements of choice and no-choice conditions and analyzed potential factors affecting preferences for choice and no choice. The findings suggest that the sizing of alternatives from which to choose, the timing of choice opportunities, and the timing of the delivery of the chosen option varied across the studies. Furthermore, preferences for choice shifted with differential reinforcement history and response effort manipulations of choice or no choice. The findings suggest that individual variables should be considered when providing choices, but more research is needed.

Correspondence between preference for and efficacy of behavioral interventions: A systematic review

Understanding of the correspondence between intervention preference and efficacy is limited. We systematically reviewed 112 articles (457 cases) evaluating efficacy of and preference for behavioral interventions. We analyzed the percentage of cases for whom interventions were preferred and efficacious across broad (e.g., behavior reduction, performance, skill acquisition) and specific (e.g., noncontingent reinforcement, video modeling) intervention types. Authors reported one preferred intervention for most cases. Regarding efficacy, authors reported about half of cases as having one efficacious intervention and the other half having multiple equally efficacious interventions. The same intervention was preferred and efficacious for 74% of cases for whom authors reported one preferred and one efficacious intervention. Several specific interventions were generally preferred and efficacious across cases (e.g., digital stimuli, computer-based instruction, accumulated reinforcement, contingent reinforcement). We discuss clinical recommendations, the importance of assessing preference, and the need for research in developing protocols for assessing intervention preference.

Sensitivity to the Instrumental Value of Choice Increases Across Development

Across development, people tend to demonstrate a preference for contexts in which they have the opportunity to make choices. However, it is not clear how children, adolescents, and adults learn to calibrate this preference based on the costs and benefits of agentic choice. Here, in both a primary, in-person, reinforcement-learning experiment (N = 92; age range = 10-25 years) and a preregistered online replication study (N = 150; age range = 8-25 years), we found that participants overvalued agentic choice but also calibrated their agency decisions to the reward structure of the environment, increasingly selecting agentic choice when choice had greater instrumental value. Regression analyses and computational modeling of participant choices revealed that participants' bias toward agentic choice-reflecting its intrinsic value-remained consistent across age, whereas sensitivity to the instrumental value of agentic choice increased from childhood to early adulthood.

Direct and indirect effects of and preferences for feedback during the Good Behavior Game in elementary classes

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective procedure for reducing disruptive classroom behavior. Students in three fifth-grade classes selected the rules of the GBG and then experienced the GBG with different forms of feedback for rule violations (vocal and visual, vocal only, visual only, no feedback). Following an initial baseline, the four feedback versions of the GBG and a baseline condition were alternated across sessions in a multielement design. All versions of the GBG substantially reduced disruptive behavior below baseline levels. Additionally, in one of the three classes losing the GBG produced an increase in negative peer interactions immediately following the GBG. Following the multielement comparison, we implemented a group-arrangement concurrent-chains preference assessment in which students selected one of the conditions to experience each day. The most selected condition across all classes was the GBG condition, which included both vocal and visual feedback.

Report of the ABAI Task Force on Contingent Electric Skin Shock

As a task force appointed by the Executive Council of the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI), we investigated the clinical use of contingent electric skin shock (CESS) in behavior analytic treatments for severe problem behavior. We studied how CESS is used in contemporary behavior analysis, reinforcement-based alternatives to CESS, and current ethical and professional guidelines for applied behavior analysts. We recommended that ABAI uphold clients' right to receive CESS when it is restricted to extreme cases and used under rigorous professional and legal oversight. Our recommendation was rejected by a vote of the full members of ABAI, who instead endorsed an alternative recommendation, developed by members of the Executive Council, that opposed the use of CESS under any condition. Here we present for the record our report and initial recommendations, the formal statement that was rejected by the members of ABAI, and the statement that was endorsed.

Validation and Use of the Measure of Effective Attributes of Trainers in School-Based Implementation of Proactive Classroom Management Strategies

In-service training is a critical and frequently utilized implementation strategy to support the adoption and delivery of evidence-based practice (EBP) across service settings, but is characteristically ineffective in producing provider behavior changes, particularly when delivered in single exposure didactic events. EBP trainers are in a strategic position to leverage their trainee-perceived characteristics to influence trainees' attitudes, motivation, and intentions to implement, and ultimately increase the likelihood of successful uptake of skills. The purpose of this study was to extend research on the measure of effective attributes of trainers (MEAT) by examining its underlying factor structure and reliability in the context of in-service EBP training for teachers (i.e., structural validity). This study also examined the predictive validity of the MEAT by examining relationships with a measure of teacher intentions to implement EBPs following a standardized training experience (i.e., predictive validity). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was employed to determine the latent factors (i.e., subscales of characteristics) that underlie the data. Additionally, a forward selection, stepwise regression was conducted to determine the extent to which trainer attributes could explain variance in intentions to implement. Results indicated that the MEAT was a valid and reliable measure to examine trainer attributes in school settings. Moreover, findings suggested that trainer attributes, particularly those related to trainee perceptions of the trainers' welcoming disposition (i.e., related to trainers' warm, positive temperament and internal character traits), were significantly associated with trainees' intentions to implement the trained upon EBP.

Toward trauma-informed applications of behavior analysis

Despite a growing acknowledgement of the importance of understanding the impacts of trauma on therapeutic approaches across human service disciplines, discussions of trauma have been relatively infrequent in the behavior analytic literature. In this paper, we delineate some of the barriers to discussing and investigating trauma in applied behavior analysis (ABA) and describe how the core commitments of trauma-informed care could be applied to behavior analysis. We then provide some examples of how trauma-informed care might be incorporated into ABA practice. We conclude by suggesting opportunities to approach trauma as a viable avenue for behavior analytic research and argue that omitting trauma-informed care from ABA could be detrimental not only to the public perception of ABA, but to the effectiveness of our assessment and treatment procedures.

A Review of Effective Strategies for Parent-Delivered Instruction

Parent involvement in treatment is an important component of effective behavior-analytic services. Whether parents are expected to act as the primary behavior change agent or support treatment in other ways, behavior analysts must provide them with the resources necessary to encourage lasting behavior change. A critical component of supporting lasting behavior change is the foundational skills related to instruction delivery. Without these skills, parents will not likely benefit from more advanced programs and interventions recommended by behavior analysts. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to describe the foundational skills necessary for parents to successfully establish an instructional environment for further program and intervention delivery. To aid practitioners, a parent-friendly handout is included and discussed.

The Effects of Choice on the Reading Comprehension and Enjoyment of Children with Severe Inattention and no Attentional Difficulties

It has been proposed that enhancing motivation supports the learning of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Less is known if inattentive children with no ADHD diagnosis may similarly benefit, when being motivated to engage in an academic task. Using a repeated-measures design, this study investigated the effects of text choice as an intrinsic motivator on the reading comprehension and enjoyment of Year 4 children attending mainstream primary schools (N = 92; aged 8–9 years; 48 boys); comparing those with no attentional difficulties and severe inattention. We hypothesized that 1) choice would increase reading comprehension and enjoyment 2) choice would increase the reading comprehension and enjoyment of children both with severe inattention and no attentional difficulties 3) choice effects would be significantly greater for children with severe inattention than those with no attentional difficulties. Children participated in a reading intervention that included a Choice (experimental) and a No Choice (control) condition. Child inattention was measured via a Virtual Reality Continuous Performance Task (Omission errors, Reaction Time Variability) and Teacher Ratings. Choice significantly increased reading comprehension, but not enjoyment compared with no choice. Choice improved the reading comprehension of children with both severe inattention and no attentional difficulties. Choice did not benefit the reading of severely inattentive children more than that of children with no attentional difficulties. These findings underline the educational benefits of choice for young readers both with severe inattention and no attentional difficulties, which are further discussed drawing on existing theory and research.

Increasing passive compliance to wearing a facemask in children with autism spectrum disorder

The current study taught 6 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to increase passive compliance of wearing a facemask across sequentially increasing durations of time. A changing-criterion design embedded within a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a resetting differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) without escape extinction procedure on passive compliance. Terminal probe sessions determined DRO fading intervals. Results showed that 2 participants acquired mastery level passive compliance (30 min) without fading during the initial baseline sessions. The remaining 4 participants acquired mastery level passive compliance following fading intervals within the DRO intervention. Participants' passive compliance generalized across 2 novel settings. This study replicates previous studies and extends empirical support for the use of DRO without escape extinction interventions for increasing passive compliance with medical devices in children with ASD.

Shifting preferences for choice-making opportunities through histories of differential reinforcer quality

Children of both typical and atypical cognitive development tend to prefer contexts in which their behavior results in a choice of reinforcers rather than a single reinforcer, even when the reinforcer accessed is identical across conditions. The origin of this preference has been attributed speculatively to behavioral histories in which choice making tends to be associated with differentially beneficial outcomes. Few studies have evaluated this claim, and those that have, have yielded mixed results. We provided five preschool-aged children experiences in which choice-making and no-choice contexts were differentially associated with higher preference and larger magnitude reinforcers, and we assessed changes in their preference for choice and no-choice contexts in which outcomes were equated. These conditioning experiences resulted in consistent and replicable shifts in child preference, indicating that preference for choice is malleable through experience.

Systematic Changes in Preference for Schedule-Thinning Arrangements as a Function of Relative Reinforcement Density

We treated destructive behavior maintained by both social-positive (i.e., access to tangibles) and social-negative (i.e., escape from demands) reinforcement in an individual diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder using functional communication training (FCT). We then thinned the schedule of reinforcement for the tangible function using a multiple schedule (mult FCT) and later thinned the availability of escape using a chained schedule (chain FCT). Both treatments proved effective at maintaining functional communicative responses while decreasing destructive behavior to near-zero levels. In addition, treatment effects maintained when we rapidly thinned mult FCT to the terminal schedule. Throughout chain-FCT schedule thinning, we assessed client preference for each schedule-thinning arrangement (mult FCT or chain FCT) using a concurrent-chains procedure. Client preference reliably shifted from chain FCT to mult FCT as the response requirement increased and the proportion of session spent in reinforcement began to favor mult FCT. We discuss the clinical implications of these findings.

A demonstration of how to do a meta-analysis that combines single-case designs with between-groups experiments: The effects of choice making on challenging behaviors performed by people with disabilities

OBJECTIVE

This paper demonstrates how to conduct a meta-analysis that includes both between-group and single-case design (SCD) studies. The example studies whether choice-making interventions decrease challenging behaviors performed by people with disabilities.

METHODS

We used a between-case d-statistic to conduct a meta-analysis of 15 between-group and SCD studies of 70 people with a disability, who received a choice intervention or control. We used robust variance estimation to adjust for dependencies caused by multiple effect sizes per study, and conducted moderator, sensitivity, influence, and publication bias analyses.

RESULTS

The random-effects average was d = 1.02 (standard error of 0.168), so the 95% confidence interval (CI) suggests choice-making reduces challenging behaviors by 0.65 to 1.38 standard deviations. Studies that provided choice training produced a significantly larger intervention effect.

CONCLUSION

Choice-making reduces challenging behaviors performed by people with disabilities.

Text-based Vocabulary Intervention Training Study: Supporting Fourth Graders with Low Reading Comprehension and Learning Disabilities

This experimental study examined the effectiveness of a text-based reading and vocabulary intervention with self-regulatory supports for 4th graders with low reading comprehension. Students with standard scores on the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test between 1.0 standard deviation (SD) and 0.5 SD below the normative sample were included (N=44) and randomly assigned to treatment condition (n=25) or no treatment comparison condition (n=19). Researchers provided the intervention to students in groups of approximately 2-3 students for eight 30 minute sessions. Students in the treatment condition made statistically significant gains on a researcher-developed measure of reading and vocabulary compared with students in the comparison condition.

Translating Self-Determination Concepts into Support for Adults with Severe Disabilities

Enhancing self-determination is an ongoing process that involves the development of skills, interaction with the environment, and the support of others. In this report we translate the concepts of self-determination into action strategies for support providers who work with adults with severe disabilities. Specifically, this report (a) describes several barriers to self-determination, (b) describes ways to translate the four components of self-determination into practice, (c) provides an example of how support for self-determination was implemented for one woman, and (d) discusses some of the unresolved challenges in making self-determination a reality for adults with severe disabilities.

Assessment and Intervention for the Problem Behaviors of an Adult at Home

Damon, a 37-year-old man with severe retardation (IQ = 39), lived at home with his mother and, for the past 15 years, had worked in a sheltered workshop. Incidents of problem behavior had been rare both at home and at work. Two weeks before this study started, Damon's behavior changed suddenly. When asked to get up in the morning to get ready for work, he yelled, “No” and threw things at his mother. If she persisted, his behavior escalated into hitting, kicking, and swearing. This study was conducted in two phases. The first phase, which combined descriptive and experimental (analogue) methods, indicated that Damon's problem behaviors were escape motivated, but did not indicate the specific activities or conditions from which Damon wanted to escape. The second phase included additional descriptive assessment with the workshop staff, and hypothesis development and hypothesis testing and intervention within naturally occurring routines at home. These procedures identified that Damon's problem behaviors did not occur when he was able to participate in a more preferred activity (a day activity program), whether or not he was allowed to choose the preferred activity. The resultant intervention immediately eliminated all problem behavior and received very high treatment acceptability ratings from Damon's mother, the person who was directly responsible for its implementation in the home.

Enhancing Choice and Participation for Adults with Severe Disabilities in Community-Based Instruction

Three adults with severe disabilities received instructional support to make purchases in fast food restaurants. During baseline and intervention, participants received discrete, systematic prompting and feedback to perform the steps of the purchasing task analysis. During intervention, participants were prompted to make five distinct choices during the community routine. This prompting resulted not only in increased choicemaking, but also in collateral increases in the performance of the purchasing task analysis.

Integrating Choice-Making Opportunities within Teacher-Assigned Academic Tasks to Facilitate the Performance of Children with Autism

Providing opportunities to make choices has received increasing support as an antecedent intervention to improve the performance of students with disabilities. Additional research in this area is needed to determine under what circumstances the application of choice making as a curricular intervention is appropriate and produces meaningful outcomes. The present study extended this line of research and investigated how providing choice opportunities to children with autism impacted their performance during teacher-assigned homework activities. An ABAB design was utilized to evaluate the effects of choice making (student vs. tutor) on the academic performance of four children with autism. Results showed that providing students with opportunities to make choices regarding the order of task completion and use of stimulus materials improved participants' accuracy, productivity, affect, and reduced their disruptive behaviors. These findings support the use of child choice as a teaching strategy to improve the academic performance of children with autism during curricular activities. The functional properties of choice making and considerations for its use as a curricular-based antecedent intervention are discussed.

Modifying Activities to Produce Functional Outcomes: Effects on the Problem Behaviors of Students with Disabilities

This article presents three empirical demonstrations of desirable effects that accrued from modifying curricular activities in accordance with individual students' interests. Participants were three elementary students with disabilities and diverse labels including autism, mental retardation, and emotional and behavioral disorder. In each case, the instructional objective was held constant; whereas, the context of the activity was modified so that it produced an outcome that was judged to be meaningful and reinforcing to the student. Reversal designs showed that each student exhibited less problem behavior and more on-task responding when the modified activity was presented. These results are discussed in relation to the applied and conceptual literatures on curricular design, student preference, and the expanding enterprise of positive behavioral support.

Self-Determination for Individuals with the Most Severe Disabilities: Moving beyond Chimera

Individuals with the most severe disabilities may be unsuccessful in effecting changes in their environment for various reasons. Because of limitations in cognitive and expressive language skills, their attempts at communicating may be overlooked or misunderstood, or may be knowingly or inadvertently obstructed. Consequently, self-determination is often dependent on our interpretation of what people with the most severe disabilities are communicating. This article explores the implications of making interpretations, the need for such interpretations, and the dangers. Current progress in supporting and promoting self-determination are acknowledged. It is suggested that although these procedures may be intended to increase self-determination, they do not automatically do so. In fact, they may function to limit self-determination. Strategies and methodologies must be critically evaluated to ensure that such efforts reflect the tenets and spirit of self-determination.

Embedding Choice in the Context of Daily Routines: An Experimental Case Study

In this study, we evaluated the effect of individualized, embedded choice opportunities in daily routines on the task initiations and protests by one man with severe disabilities. An initial functional analysis conducted during Phase 1 revealed that low rates of participation and high rates of protests in household activities were related to prompts that offered no control. Subsequently in Phase 2, we modified prompts within three different routines to provide greater control through choice. Within the context of an A-B-A-B design, the effects of a “traditional” no-choice versus choice task analysis were evaluated in each routine across three staff. The results demonstrated that when routines included opportunities for choice, task initiations were high, whereas protests, including severe aggression, were virtually eliminated. These results are discussed in relation to their implications for participant control, individualizing choice opportunities, embedding choice in daily routines, and the prevention of problem behaviors.

The Validity of Functional Behavioral Assessment with Students of Average Intellectual Ability

In the United States, functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is a new requirement of the 1997 Amendments to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act for students who exhibit challenging behavior. FBA has been extensively studied with persons with severe and profound intellectual disabilities within clinical settings. However, there is limited research with students with average intellectual ability in public education settings. This article reviews seven pertinent validity indices associated with FBA: external validity, content validity, convergent validity, criterion validity, treatment validity, social validity, and habilitative validity. In short, much research is needed to inform practitioners about conducting valid FBAwith students with average intellectual ability.

Using e-coaching to support an early intervention provider's implementation of a functional assessment-based intervention

This study examined the effects of e-coaching on the implementation of a functional assessment-based intervention delivered by an early intervention provider in reducing challenging behaviors during home visits. A multiple baseline design across behavior support plan components was used with a provider-child dyad. The e-coaching intervention consisted of weekly training and support delivered via video conferencing software. Results demonstrated a functional relation between e-coaching and early intervention provider implementation of targeted behavior support plan strategies. Further, the child's challenging behaviors decreased over the course of the study. Contributions to the literature, implications for practice, and future directions are discussed.

Positive Behavior Support for Individuals with Behavior Challenges

Individual positive behavior support (PBS) is a process that combines evidence-based practices from applied behavior analysis (ABA) and other disciplines to resolve behavioral challenges and improve independence, participation, and overall quality of life of individuals living and learning in complex community environments. Its features include lifestyle enhancement, collaboration with typical caregivers, tracking progress via meaningful measures, comprehensive function-based interventions, striving for contextual fit, and ensuring buy-in and implementation. This article will summarize the features and illustrate with a case example. • Engaging caregivers to take an active role in behavioral intervention • Designing interventions that work effectively within natural routines • Addressing lifestyle changes, as well as more discrete behavior changes • Creating strategies that are durable, reducing dependence on professionals.

Four Methods for Analyzing Partial Interval Recording Data, with Application to Single-Case Research

Partial interval recording (PIR) is a procedure for collecting measurements during direct observation of behavior. It is used in several areas of educational and psychological research, particularly in connection with single-case research. Measurements collected using partial interval recording suffer from construct invalidity because they are not readily interpretable in terms of the underlying characteristics of the behavior. Using an alternating renewal process model for the behavior under observation, we demonstrate that ignoring the construct invalidity of PIR data can produce misleading inferences, such as inferring that an intervention reduces the prevalence of an undesirable behavior when in fact it has the opposite effect. We then propose four different methods for analyzing PIR summary measurements, each of which can be used to draw inferences about interpretable behavioral parameters. We demonstrate the methods by applying them to data from two single-case studies of problem behavior.

Clinical decision making and preference assessment for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities

Individuals with intellectual or developmental disabilities are able to reliably express their likes and dislikes through direct preference assessment. Preferred items tend to function as rewards and can therefore be used to facilitate the acquisition of new skills and promote task engagement. A number of preference assessment methods are available and selecting the appropriate method is crucial to provide reliable and meaningful results. The authors conducted a systematic review of the preference assessment literature, and developed an evidence-informed, decision-making model to guide practitioners in the selection of preference assessment methods for a given assessment scenario. The proposed decision-making model could be a useful tool to increase the usability and uptake of preference assessment methodology in applied settings.

Positive behavior support and applied behavior analysis

This article reviews the origins and characteristics of the positive behavior support (PBS) movement and examines those features in the context of the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA). We raise a number of concerns about PBS as an approach to delivery of behavioral services and its impact on how ABA is viewed by those in human services. We also consider the features of PBS that have facilitated its broad dissemination and how ABA might benefit from emulating certain practices of the PBS movement.