Utility of extinction-induced response variability for the selection of mands

A Practitioner’s Guide for Selecting Functional Communication Responses

Functional communication training (FCT) is an effective and widely used procedure to reduce problem behaviors. The purpose of FCT is to replace a problem behavior with a socially appropriate and communicative behavior - the functional communication response (FCR), which produces the same reinforcer as the problem behavior. Recent reviews of FCT have focused on providing overall recommendations for how the procedure should be implemented. A relatively small body of literature has been devoted to the selection of the FCR. The purpose of this article is to propose a set of considerations for practitioners in selecting FCRs.

Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations

For over 50 years, intervention methods informed by the principles of applied behavior analysis (ABA) have been empirically researched and clinically implemented for autistics/individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Despite the plethora of evidence for the effectiveness of ABA-based interventions, some autism rights and neurodiversity activists have expressed concerns with ABA-based interventions. Concerns have included discontent with historical events and possible harm from the procedures and goals targeted. The purpose of this manuscript is to examine some expressed concerns about ABA-based intervention and suggest productive ways of moving forward to provide the best outcomes for autistics/individuals diagnosed with ASD. The authors represent stakeholders from multiple sectors including board certified behavior analysts, licensed psychologists, parents, and autistics/individuals diagnosed with ASD.

Emergence of complex dynamics of choice due to repeated exposures to extinction learning

Extinction learning, the process of ceasing an acquired behavior in response to altered reinforcement contingencies, is not only essential for survival in a changing environment, but also plays a fundamental role in the treatment of pathological behaviors. During therapy and other forms of training involving extinction, subjects are typically exposed to several sessions with a similar structure. The effects of this repeated exposure are not well understood. Here, we studied the behavior of pigeons across several sessions of a discrimination-learning task in context A, extinction in context B, and a return to context A to test the context-dependent return of the learned responses (ABA renewal). By focusing on individual learning curves across animals, we uncovered a session-dependent variability of behavior: (1) during extinction, pigeons preferred the unrewarded alternative choice in one-third of the sessions, predominantly during the first one. (2) In later sessions, abrupt transitions of behavior at the onset of context B emerged, and (3) the renewal effect decayed as sessions progressed. We show that the observed results can be parsimoniously accounted for by a computational model based only on associative learning between stimuli and actions. Our work thus demonstrates the critical importance of studying the trial-by-trial dynamics of learning in individual sessions, and the power of “simple” associative learning processes.

Using Extinction to Increase Behavior: Capitalizing on Extinction-Induced Response Variability to Establish Mands With Autoclitic Frames

Members (behaviors) of a response class are equivalent in that they produce the same functional reinforcer. Oftentimes, some members of a response class occur at higher rates than others. This can be problematic when the members that occur at high rates are socially inappropriate (e.g., self-injury, aggression, or disruption). The participant in this study was a 16-year-old female diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder who demonstrated aggression, one-word mands, and mands with autoclitic frames. In a series of contingency reversals, we placed 2 behaviors on extinction (e.g., aggression and one-word mands), which resulted in extinction-induced variability. Capitalizing on extinction-induced variability, we reinforced a different behavior (e.g., mands with autoclitic frames). The results confirmed that (a) the rate of responding for each topography was a function of extinction-induced response variability and differential reinforcement and (b) all response topographies belonged to the same response class. These results provide empirical support for the use of extinction-induced variability to differentially increase the rate of socially appropriate behaviors while decreasing socially inappropriate behaviors that belong to the same response class.

Increased number of responses may account for reduced resurgence following serial training

Abrupt discontinuation of functional communication training can cause resurgence of challenging behavior. Teaching multiple alternative responses in sequence (serial training) may reduce resurgence, relative to teaching a single alternative. However, previous evaluations of serial training included a different number of response options across comparison conditions. In Experiment 1, we varied both training type (single and serial) and number of response options, and replicated previous findings showing that more resurgence occurred following single training relative to serial training. In Experiment 2, we varied the training type while holding the number of alternative responses constant and obtained no consistent differences in resurgence. In Experiment 3, we varied the number of alternative responses while holding training type constant (i.e., single). More resurgence occurred in the condition with fewer response options, suggesting that the number of available alternative responses, and not explicit serial training of alternatives, was critical to outcomes.

A Systematic Review of Interventions to Promote Varied Social-Communication Behavior in Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may engage in repetitive social-communication behaviors that can limit their skill acquisition, access to reinforcement, and access to less restrictive settings. Basic and applied research indicates that variability, or the extent to which responses are topographically different from one another, is influenced by antecedent and consequence interventions. Our purpose in this study is to systematically review the literature on interventions to increase variable social-communication behaviors in individuals with ASD. We identified 32 studies through a database search and screened them using the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Single-Case Design Standards. Eighteen studies containing 55 cases met WWC Design Standards. We coded the descriptive characteristics and strength of evidence based on visual analysis from each of these 18 studies and calculated effect sizes using Tau-U. Our results indicate that most cases (65%) provide strong evidence of a functional relation between the interventions and varied social-communication behaviors, and the median Tau-U was .82. We discuss the implications of our results for practice and for future research on interventions designed to increase variability with this population.

An Evaluation of the Effects of Varying Magnitudes of Reinforcement on Variable Responding Exhibited by Individuals With Autism

Interventions aimed at increasing communicative response variability hold particular importance for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Several procedures have been demonstrated in the applied and translational literature to increase response variability. However, little is known about the relationship between reinforcer magnitude and response variability. In the basic literature, Doughty, Giorno, and Miller evaluated the effects of reinforcer magnitude on behavioral variability by manipulating reinforcer magnitude across alternating relative frequency threshold contingencies, with results suggesting that larger reinforcers induced repetitive responding. The purpose of this study was to translate Doughty et al.'s findings to evaluate the relative effects of different magnitudes of reinforcement on communicative response variability in children with ASD. A Lag 1 schedule of reinforcement was in place during each condition within an alternating treatments design. Magnitudes of reinforcement contingent on variable communicative responding were manipulated across the two conditions. Inconsistent with basic findings, the results showed higher levels of variable communicative responding associated with the larger magnitude of reinforcement. These outcomes may have potential implications for interventions aimed at increasing response variability in individuals with ASD, as well as future research in this area.

Empirical Application of Skinner's Verbal Behavior to Interventions for Children with Autism: A Review

Sundberg and Michael (2011) reviewed the contributions of Skinner's (1957) Verbal Behavior to the treatment of language delays in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and discussed several aspects of interventions, including mand training, intraverbal repertoire development, and the importance of using Skinner's taxonomy of verbal behavior in the clinical context. In this article, we provide an update of Sundberg and Michael's review and expand on some discussion topics. We conducted a systematic review of studies that focused on Skinner's verbal operants in interventions for children with ASD that were published from 2001 to 2017 and discussed the findings in terms of journal source, frequency, and type of verbal operant studied.

An analysis of procedures that affect response variability

Response variability is sensitive to antecedent and consequent manipulations. Researchers have investigated inducement, direct production through reinforcement, and stimulus control of response variability. Recently, researchers have shown that lag reinforcement schedules reliably increase variability but may also produce higher-order stereotypy. There has been limited investigation of appropriate variability levels and alternation between repetition and variation. In a three-part study, we evaluated levels of variability across a group of children, the effects of various procedures on producing response variability and novelty, and the use of schedule-correlated stimuli for producing rapid alternation between repetition and variation. In Study 1, there was a nearly bimodal distribution of children emitting either low or high variability. In Study 2, for most children, fixed lag 4 and variable lag 4 schedules produced the highest levels of variability and novelty. In Study 3, responding was brought under control of schedule-correlated stimuli, allowing for rapid alternation between repetition and variation.

A Practitioner Model for Increasing Eye Contact in Children With Autism

Although many teaching techniques for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) require the instructor to gain the child's eye contact prior to delivering an instructional demand, the literature contains notably few procedures that reliably produce this outcome. To address this problem, we evaluated the effects of a sequential model for increasing eye contact in children with ASD. The model included the following phases: contingent praise only (for eye contact), contingent edibles plus praise, stimulus prompts plus contingent edibles and praise, contingent video and praise, schedule thinning, and maintenance evaluations for up to 2 years. Results indicated that the procedures increased eye contact for 20 participants (one additional participant did not require consequences). For 16 participants, praise (alone) was not sufficient to support eye contact; however, high levels of eye contact were typically maintained with these participants when therapists used combined schedules of intermittent edibles or video and continuous praise. We discuss some limitations of this model and directions for future research on increasing eye contact for children with ASD.

Effects of Simultaneous Script Training on Use of Varied Mand Frames by Preschoolers with Autism

Young children with autism may fail to mand using a range of frames (e.g., "I want," "May I have," "Please give me"). We examined the effects of simultaneous script training and script fading on acquisition and maintenance of varied mand frames with six preschool children with autism. For participants who did not demonstrate increased mand variability under fixed-ratio (FR) 1 conditions, we assessed the effects of post script-training extinction on response variability. Following training of up to four different mand frames, three of six participants emitted more varied mands under FR1 conditions relative to baseline. Posttraining extinction resulted in increased mand variability for two of the three remaining participants. Results are discussed in terms of considerations for both establishing and ensuring the persistence of varied verbal behavior among children with autism.

Increasing the mand repertoire of children with autism through the use of an interrupted chain procedure

Mand training is an essential component of verbal behavior training for any individual who lacks this skill. The current study replicates and extends, with some procedural differences, the work of Hall and Sundberg (1987) by using an interrupted chain procedure to teach mands for missing items to children with autism. The participants were 3 children with autism, ranging between 5 and 8 years of age, who would regularly mand for a wide variety of reinforcers when they were present but would rarely mand for items that were not in sight (i.e., missing items). Participants were first taught to complete 3 behavior chains. Subsequently, the chains were interrupted by removing 1 item needed to complete each chain to contrive motivating operations (MOs) as a means of teaching mands for missing items. Following mand training incorporating vocal prompt and prompt fading procedures, all participants emitted unprompted mands for the missing items within the context of the trained chains and within the context of novel, untrained chains. After teaching mands for missing items, probes were conducted to test for untrained tact acquisition. All participants also demonstrated tact responses relative to the missing items as a result of the mand training.

Increased parent reinforcement of spontaneous requests in children with autism spectrum disorder: effects on problem behavior

Previous studies of response classes in individuals with developmental disabilities (DD) and problem behavior have shown that mild problem behavior, precursor behavior, and mands or requests can occur as functionally equivalent to severe problem behavior in some individuals. Furthermore, participants in some studies chose to use functionally equivalent alternatives over severe problem behavior to produce the maintaining reinforcer. The present study added to this literature by having parents reinforce spontaneous requests functionally equivalent to problem behavior in their children with autism at home. First, parent-implemented functional analyses identified conditions associated with increased problem behavior and requests in two children with autism. Then, parents provided the maintaining reinforcer contingent on problem behavior alone or both problem behavior and requests in a withdrawal design. The treatment analysis indicated that the same reinforcer maintained child requests and problem behavior. In addition, when parents reinforced both requests and problem behavior, child participants demonstrated a preference for requests, thereby decreasing problem behavior. Implications of this relation for function-based treatment of problem behavior in children with autism are discussed.

Using a lag schedule to increase variability of verbal responding in an individual with autism

Research has shown that reinforcing novel behaviors can increase the number of different ways that an individual behaves (Goetz & Baer, 1973; Pryor, Haag, & O'Reilly, 1969). However, it was not until more recently that researchers began to consider variability to be a reinforceable operant in and of itself (Neuringer, 2002). More specifically, Neuringer suggested that variability can be taught using a Lag x schedule of reinforcement, in which x refers to the number of previous responses from which the current response must differ in order for reinforcement to occur (Page & Neuringer, 1985). The purpose of the present study was to extend one of the first studies of a Lag x schedule on verbal responses with human subjects (Lee, McComas, & Jawor, 2002), by increasing the lag criteria while attempting to address some of methodological limitations of the study. The participant was a 7-year-old male with autism. A changing criterion design was used and results showed that 3 novel responses were acquired and varied according to the lag schedule of reinforcement.

An Investigation of Extinction-Induced Vocalizations

Children with autism have significant communication delays. Although some children develop vocalizations through shaping and differential reinforcement, others rarely exhibit vocalizations, and alternative methods are targeted in intervention. However, vocal language often remains a goal for caregivers and clinicians. Thus, strategies to increase frequency of vocalizations are needed. In the present study, the authors examined the effect of extinction of previously acquired signed mands on vocalizations in three children diagnosed with autism. Experiment 1 examined the effects of differential reinforcement of vocalizations and extinction of signed mands combined. In Experiment 1, it was unknown whether the reinforcement of vocalizations alone could have produced the effects; therefore, Experiment 2 isolated the effects of reinforcement and extinction by reinforcing vocalizations in baseline. An increase in rate of vocalizations occurred following the application of extinction of signed mands and differential reinforcement of vocalizations in Experiment 1 and following extinction of signed mands in Experiment 2.

Functional analysis and treatment of self-injury in a captive olive baboon

Self-injurious behavior (SIB), such as self-biting and head banging, has been reported to occur in approximately 10% of captive, individually housed nonhuman primates. Accounts of the etiology of SIB in primates range from ecological to physiological. However, to date, no research has examined the possible influence of social consequences delivered by handlers and keepers in the maintenance of SIB in this population. The current study investigated the effects of social contact as a potentially reinforcing consequence for the SIB displayed by an olive baboon (Papio hamadryas anubis). Results indicated that the behavior was maintained by attention from humans. As treatment, reinforcement was arranged for an appropriate alternative response, resulting in increases in the appropriate alternative behavior and decreases in SIB.

An Evaluation of Manding Across Functions Prior to Functional Communication Training

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether destructive behavior and manding were maintained by the same social reinforcers. A summary of 10 participants that met criteria for differentiated functional analysis and mand analysis results were included in this study. All participants were preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities who engaged in destructive behavior. All procedures were conducted in the participants' homes by their parent with investigator coaching. Functional analyses (attention, escape, and tangible test conditions) of destructive behavior and manding were conducted within multielement designs and showed social functions. The functional analysis of destructive behavior and functional analysis of mands identified the same reinforcers for only 2 of the 10 participants. The analysis of mands identified a reinforcer that was not identified by the analysis of destructive behavior for 5 participants (over-identification), did not identify a reinforcer that was identified by the analysis of destructive behavior for 2 participants (under-identification), and identified mixed reinforcers (combination of over-identification and under-identification) for 1 participant. Results suggest that the analysis of destructive behavior and the analysis of mands identified different reinforcers and are not interchangeable.

Separate and combined effects of visual schedules and extinction plus differential reinforcement on problem behavior occasioned by transitions

The separate and combined effects of visual schedules and extinction plus differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) were evaluated to decrease transition-related problem behavior of 2 children diagnosed with autism. Visual schedules alone were ineffective in reducing problem behavior when transitioning from preferred to nonpreferred activities. Problem behavior decreased for both participants when extinction and DRO were introduced, regardless of whether visual schedules were also used.

Evaluation of a pre-treatment assessment to select mand topographies for functional communication training

Recent research has suggested that variables related to specific mand topographies targeted during functional communication training (FCT) can affect treatment outcomes. These include effort, novelty of mands, previous relationships with problem behavior, and preference. However, there is little extant research on procedures for identifying which mand topographies to incorporate into FCT. In the current study, a mand topography assessment was conducted following functional analyses to identify the proficiency with which individuals used several different mand topographies. Two mand topographies (high and low proficiency) were then compared during FCT-based treatments. FCT was more effective when the mand topography identified as high proficiency was incorporated into FCT as compared to FCT that included the lower proficiency response. The results are discussed in terms of the need for individualized assessment procedures for selecting mand topographies that are targeted during FCT.

Functional analyses and treatment of precursor behavior

Functional analysis has been demonstrated to be an effective method to identify environmental variables that maintain problem behavior. However, there are cases when conducting functional analyses of severe problem behavior may be contraindicated. The current study applied functional analysis procedures to a class of behavior that preceded severe problem behavior (precursor behavior) and evaluated treatments based on the outcomes of the functional analyses of precursor behavior. Responding for all participants was differentiated during the functional analyses, and individualized treatments eliminated precursor behavior. These results suggest that functional analysis of precursor behavior may offer an alternative, indirect method to assess the operant function of severe problem behavior.