Effects of consequences of advice on patterns of rule control and rule choice

Interpersonal and Group Contingencies

Responding by individuals in groups has been a prominent interest of the field of psychology. Experimental analyses of human behavior have provided some unique findings of the role that the environment, including both social and nonsocial stimuli, may have on individual responding. Cooperative and competitive contingencies, previously evaluated in animal and human operant research, provide unique insight into applied interventions, in particular group contingencies. The current manuscript attempts to bridge these two literatures to foster the development of more effective technologies and lines of experimental or translational research that may better inform interventions in the applied realm.

Effects of Mands on Instructional Control: A Laboratory Simulation

The effects of two types of mands on participants' adherence to instructions were examined across two groups using procedures based on Hackenberg and Joker (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 62:367-383, 1994). Participants were presented with instructions describing a pattern of responding for producing points later exchanged for money and were exposed to choice trials in which a progressive-time (PT) and a fixed-time (FT) schedule were concurrently available. The instructions initially described how to optimize point production; however, the PT schedule was manipulated over the course of the experiment such that response patterns maximizing point production differed across conditions. All participants experienced the same experimental arrangement, and the two groups differed only in the form of the mand contained in the instructions presented to them. The instructions for the directive group contained the mand "you must…" (i.e., command) preceding the instructed response pattern, whereas the non-directive group instructions contained the mand "you might consider…" (i.e., suggestion) preceding the instructed response pattern. Results indicated that instruction type influenced response patterns across changing contingencies. The directive group exhibited greater adherence to the instruction than the non-directive group when instruction following was less profitable. Results are interpreted in terms of Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior, and implications for practical application are discussed.

Instruções e iniqüidade de reforços: efeitos sobre o comportamento competitivo

O presente estudo investigou se a precisão da instrução afetaria os efeitos da iniqüidade de reforços. Trinta estudantes universitários, separados em duplas, escolheram entre trabalhar sozinho ou competir com o parceiro. Na alternativa individual, os pontos foram distribuídos igualmente entre os participantes; na alternativa de competição, a distribuição de pontos foi manipulada no decorrer das condições de modo que o Participante 1 ganhava mais pontos que o Participante 2, ou vice-versa. Algumas duplas receberam informação completa sobre a distribuição de pontos (instrução precisa); outras receberam informação indicando que, algumas vezes, um participante receberia mais pontos que o outro (instrução imprecisa); e, as demais, não receberam nenhuma informação (sem instrução). A instrução imprecisa produziu escolha acentuada por competição para ambos participantes, a instrução precisa gerou escolhas sensíveis às manipulações na iniqüidade e, na ausência de instruções, ambos resultados foram observados. Foi concluído que a instrução precisa gerou estratégias mais eficientes de fuga e esquiva da iniqüidade.

Delayed rule following

Although the elements of a fully stated rule (discriminative stimulus [S(D)], some behavior, and a consequence) can occur nearly contemporaneously with the statement of the rule, there is often a delay between the rule statement and the S(D). The effects of this delay on rule following have not been studied in behavior analysis, but they have been investigated in rule-like settings in the areas of prospective memory (remembering to do something in the future) and goal pursuit. Discriminative events for some behavior can be event based (a specific setting stimulus) or time based. The latter are more demanding with respect to intention following and show age-related deficits. Studies suggest that the specificity with which the components of a rule (termed intention) are stated has a substantial effect on intention following, with more detailed specifications increasing following. Reminders of an intention, too, are most effective when they refer specifically to both the behavior and its occasion. Covert review and written notes are two effective strategies for remembering everyday intentions, but people who use notes appear not to be able to switch quickly to covert review. By focusing on aspects of the setting and rule structure, research on prospective memory and goal pursuit expands the agenda for a more complete explanation of rule effects.

Reinforcement contingencies and social reinforcement: some reciprocal relations between basic and applied research

Reinforcement contingencies and social reinforcement are ubiquitous phenomena in applied behavior analysis. This discussion paper is divided into two sections. In the first section, reinforcement contingencies are discussed in terms of the necessary and sufficient conditions for reinforcement effects. Response-stimulus dependencies, conditional probabilities, and contiguity are discussed as possible mechanisms of, and arrangements for, reinforcement effects. In the second section, social reinforcement is discussed in terms of its functional subtypes and reinforcement context effects. Two underlying themes run throughout the discussion: (a) Applied research would benefit from a greater understanding of existing basic research, and (b) basic research could be designed to specifically address some of the issues about reinforcement that are central to effective application.