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Milano N, Casella M, Esposito R, Marocco D. Exploring the Potential of Variational Autoencoders for Modeling Nonlinear Relationships in Psychological Data. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024; 14:527. [PMID: 39062350 PMCID: PMC11273997 DOI: 10.3390/bs14070527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Latent variables analysis is an important part of psychometric research. In this context, factor analysis and other related techniques have been widely applied for the investigation of the internal structure of psychometric tests. However, these methods perform a linear dimensionality reduction under a series of assumptions that could not always be verified in psychological data. Predictive techniques, such as artificial neural networks, could complement and improve the exploration of latent space, overcoming the limits of traditional methods. In this study, we explore the latent space generated by a particular artificial neural network: the variational autoencoder. This autoencoder could perform a nonlinear dimensionality reduction and encourage the latent features to follow a predefined distribution (usually a normal distribution) by learning the most important relationships hidden in data. In this study, we investigate the capacity of autoencoders to model item-factor relationships in simulated data, which encompasses linear and nonlinear associations. We also extend our investigation to a real dataset. Results on simulated data show that the variational autoencoder performs similarly to factor analysis when the relationships among observed and latent variables are linear, and it is able to reproduce the factor scores. Moreover, results on nonlinear data show that, differently than factor analysis, it can also learn to reproduce nonlinear relationships among observed variables and factors. The factor score estimates are also more accurate with respect to factor analysis. The real case results confirm the potential of the autoencoder in reducing dimensionality with mild assumptions on input data and in recognizing the function that links observed and latent variables.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Monica Casella
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory “Orazio Miglino”, Department of Humanistic Studies, University of Naples Federico II, 80133 Naples, Italy; (N.M.); (R.E.); (D.M.)
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Aguayo-Mendoza M, Buriticá J, Burgos JE. Autoshaped impulsivity: Some explorations with a neural network model. Behav Processes 2024; 218:105040. [PMID: 38679341 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2024.105040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
This study evaluated the effect of delay and magnitude of reinforcement in Pavlovian contingencies, extending the understanding of the phenomenon of autoshaped impulsivity as described in Alcalá's thesis (2017) and Burgos and García-Leal (2015). The effects of adding a trace interval were analyzed on the maintained responses of impulsive choice, seen as the preference of a small and immediate reinforcer over a larger and delayed one, and the role of the contextual unit, as well as the inhibitory units according to the Diffuse Discrepancy Model. In the Simulation, the model with inhibitory units was used, trained in two signals with different delays and reinforcement magnitudes, and subsequently presented concurrently in choice tasks without reinforcement nor learning, using an ABA within-subject design. In general, the DD model successfully simulated the phenomenon of autoshaped impulsivity, consistent with studies from Alcalá's thesis (2017), Burgos and García-Leal (2015), and Picker and Poling (1982). It also predicted the elimination of this effect (autoshaped impulsivity) after introducing a trace interval. The observed results and their implications are discussed, as well as possible future studies with animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Aguayo-Mendoza
- Centro de Estudios e Investigación en Comportamiento, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Jonathan Buriticá
- Centro de Estudios e Investigación en Comportamiento, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - José E Burgos
- Centro de Estudios e Investigación en Comportamiento, University of Guadalajara, Mexico.
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Tovar ÁE, Torres-Chávez Á, Mofrad AA, Arntzen E. Computational models of stimulus equivalence: An intersection for the study of symbolic behavior. J Exp Anal Behav 2023; 119:407-425. [PMID: 36752316 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Stimulus equivalence is a central paradigm in the analysis of symbolic behavior, language, and cognition. It describes emergent relations between stimuli that were not explicitly trained and cannot be explained by primary stimulus generalization. In recent years, researchers have developed computational models to simulate the learning of equivalence relations. These models have been used to address primary theoretical and methodological issues in this field, such as exploring the underlying mechanisms that explain emergent equivalence relations and analyzing the effects of training and testing protocols on equivalence outcomes. Nonetheless, although these models build upon general learning principles, their operation is usually obscure for nonmodelers, and in the field of stimulus equivalence computational models have been developed with a variety of approaches, architectures, and algorithms that make it difficult to understand the scope and contributions of these tools. In this paper, we present the state of the art in computational modeling of stimulus equivalence. We seek to provide concise and accessible descriptions of the models' functioning and operation, highlight their main theoretical and methodological contributions, identify the existing software available for researchers to run experiments, and suggest future directions in the emergent field of computational modeling of stimulus equivalence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Asieh Abolpour Mofrad
- Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Bailey JD, Baker JC, Rzeszutek MJ, Lanovaz MJ. Machine Learning for Supplementing Behavioral Assessment. Perspect Behav Sci 2021; 44:605-619. [PMID: 35098027 PMCID: PMC8738819 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-020-00273-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF) has a high degree of convergent validity, but there is still a lack of agreement between the results of the assessment and the results of experimental function analysis. Machine learning (ML) may improve the validity of assessments by using data to build a mathematical model for more accurate predictions. We used published QABF and subsequent functional analyses to train ML models to identify the function of behavior. With ML models, predictions can be made from indirect assessment results based on learning from results of past experimental functional analyses. In Experiment 1, we compared the results of five algorithms to the QABF criteria using a leave-one-out cross-validation approach. All five outperformed the QABF assessment on multilabel accuracy (i.e., percentage of predictions with the presence or absence of each function indicated correctly), but false negatives remained an issue. In Experiment 2, we augmented the data with 1,000 artificial samples to train and test an artificial neural network. The artificial network outperformed other models on all measures of accuracy. The results indicated that ML could be used to inform conditions that should be present in a functional analysis. Therefore, this study represents a proof-of-concept for the application of machine learning to functional assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D Bailey
- Department of Psychology, Franciscan Missionaries of Our Lady University, Baton Rouge, LA 70808 USA
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Turgeon S, Lanovaz MJ. Tutorial: Applying Machine Learning in Behavioral Research. Perspect Behav Sci 2020; 43:697-723. [PMID: 33381685 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-020-00270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Machine-learning algorithms hold promise for revolutionizing how educators and clinicians make decisions. However, researchers in behavior analysis have been slow to adopt this methodology to further develop their understanding of human behavior and improve the application of the science to problems of applied significance. One potential explanation for the scarcity of research is that machine learning is not typically taught as part of training programs in behavior analysis. This tutorial aims to address this barrier by promoting increased research using machine learning in behavior analysis. We present how to apply the random forest, support vector machine, stochastic gradient descent, and k-nearest neighbors algorithms on a small dataset to better identify parents of children with autism who would benefit from a behavior analytic interactive web training. These step-by-step applications should allow researchers to implement machine-learning algorithms with novel research questions and datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Turgeon
- École de psychoéducation, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7 Canada
| | - Marc J Lanovaz
- École de psychoéducation, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7 Canada.,Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, Montreal, QC Canada
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da Silva SP, Williams AM. Translations in Stimulus-Stimulus Pairing: Autoshaping of Learner Vocalizations. Perspect Behav Sci 2020; 43:57-103. [PMID: 32440645 PMCID: PMC7198677 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-019-00228-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stimulus-stimulus pairing (SSP) is a procedure used by behavior analysis practitioners that capitalizes on respondent conditioning processes to elicit vocalizations. These procedures usually are implemented only after other, more customary methods (e.g., standard echoic training via modeling) have been exhausted. Unfortunately, SSP itself has mixed research support, probably because certain as-yet-unidentified procedural variations are more effective than others. Even when SSP produces (or increases) vocalizations, its effects can be short-lived. Although specific features of SSP differ across published accounts, fundamental characteristics include presentation of a vocal stimulus proximal with presentation of a preferred item. In the present article, we draw parallels between SSP procedures and autoshaping, review factors shown to affect autoshaping, and interpret autoshaping research for suggested SSP tests and applications. We then call for extended use and reporting of SSP in behavior-analytic treatments. Finally, three bridges created by this article are identified: basic-applied, respondent-operant, and behavior analysis with other sciences.
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Identifying Accurate and Inaccurate Stimulus Relations: Human and Computer Learning. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-019-00337-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Burgos JE. Selection by reinforcement: A critical reappraisal. Behav Processes 2019; 161:149-160. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ninness C, Ninness SK, Rumph M, Lawson D. The Emergence of Stimulus Relations: Human and Computer Learning. Perspect Behav Sci 2017; 41:121-154. [PMID: 32004361 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-017-0125-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, investigations in the area of stimulus equivalence have employed humans as experimental participants. Recently, however, artificial neural network models (often referred to as connectionist models [CMs]) have been developed to simulate performances seen among human participants when training various types of stimulus relations. Two types of neural network models have shown particular promise in recent years. RELNET has demonstrated its capacity to approximate human acquisition of stimulus relations using simulated matching-to-sample (MTS) procedures (e.g., Lyddy & Barnes-Holmes Journal of Speech and Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 14-24, 2007). Other newly developed connectionist algorithms train stimulus relations by way of compound stimuli (e.g., Tovar & Chavez The Psychological Record, 62, 747-762, 2012; Vernucio & Debert The Psychological Record, 66, 439-449, 2016). What makes all of these CMs interesting to many behavioral researchers is their apparent ability to simulate the acquisition of diversified stimulus relations as an analogue to human learning; that is, neural networks learn over a series of training epochs such that these models become capable of deriving novel or untrained stimulus relations. With the goal of explaining these quickly evolving approaches to practical and experimental endeavors in behavior analysis, we offer an overview of existing CMs as they apply to behavior-analytic theory and practice. We provide a brief overview of derived stimulus relations as applied to human academic remediation, and we argue that human and simulated human investigations have symbiotic experimental potential. Additionally, we provide a working example of a neural network referred to as emergent virtual analytics (EVA). This model demonstrates a process by which artificial neural networks can be employed by behavior-analytic researchers to understand, simulate, and predict derived stimulus relations made by human participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Ninness
- Behavioral Software Systems, 2207 Pinecrest Dr, Nacogdoches, TX 75965 USA
| | | | - Marilyn Rumph
- Behavioral Software Systems, 2207 Pinecrest Dr, Nacogdoches, TX 75965 USA
| | - David Lawson
- 3Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX USA
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Calvin OL, McDowell J. Extending unified-theory-of-reinforcement neural networks to steady-state operant behavior. Behav Processes 2016; 127:52-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Unified-theory-of-reinforcement neural networks do not simulate the blocking effect. Behav Processes 2015; 120:54-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Burgos JE, García-Leal Ó. Autoshaped choice in artificial neural networks: implications for behavioral economics and neuroeconomics. Behav Processes 2015; 114:63-71. [PMID: 25662745 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
An existing neural network model of conditioning was used to simulate autoshaped choice. In this phenomenon, pigeons first receive an autoshaping procedure with two keylight stimuli X and Y separately paired with food in a forward-delay manner, intermittently for X and continuously for Y. Then pigeons receive unreinforced choice test trials of X and Y concurrently present. Most pigeons choose Y. This preference for a more valuable response alternative is a form of economic behavior that makes the phenomenon relevant to behavioral economics. The phenomenon also suggests a role for Pavlovian contingencies in economic behavior. The model used, in contrast to others, predicts autoshaping and automaintenance, so it is uniquely positioned to predict autoshaped choice. The model also contemplates neural substrates of economic behavior in neuroeconomics, such as dopaminergic and hippocampal systems. A feedforward neural network architecture was designed to simulate a neuroanatomical differentiation between two environment-behavior relations X-R1 and Y-R2, [corrected] where R1 and R2 denote two different emitted responses (not unconditionally elicited by the reward). Networks with this architecture received a training protocol that simulated an autoshaped-choice procedure. Most networks simulated the phenomenon. Implications for behavioral economics and neuroeconomics, limitations, and the issue of model appraisal are discussed.
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Neural Network and Multivariate Analyses: Pattern Recognition in Academic and Social Research. BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ISSUES 2013. [DOI: 10.5210/bsi.v22i0.4450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sánchez JM, Galeazzi JM, Burgos JE. Some structural determinants of Pavlovian conditioning in artificial neural networks. Behav Processes 2010; 84:526-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2010.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Revised: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Burgos JE, Flores C, García Ó, Díaz C, Cruz Y. A simultaneous procedure facilitates acquisition under an optimal interstimulus interval in artificial neural networks and rats. Behav Processes 2008; 78:302-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2008.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2007] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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