The combination of forskolin and VPA increases gene expression efficiency to the hypoxia/neuron-specific system

Function of GSK‑3 signaling in spinal cord injury (Review)

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major social problem with a heavy burden on patient physiology and psychology. Glial scar formation and irreversible neuron loss are the two key points during SCI progression. During the acute phase of spinal cord injury, glial scars form, limiting the progression of inflammation. However, in the subacute or chronic phase, glial scarring inhibits axon regeneration. Following spinal cord injury, irreversible loss of neurons leads to further aggravation of spinal cord injury. Several therapies have been developed to improve either glial scar or neuron loss; however, few therapies reach the stage of clinical trials and there are no mainstream therapies for SCI. Exploring the key mechanism of SCI is crucial for finding further treatments. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is a widely expressed kinase with important physiological and pathophysiological functions in vivo. Dysfunction of the GSK-3 signaling pathway during SCI has been widely discussed for controlling neurite growth in vitro and in vivo, improving the proliferation and neuronal differentiation of endogenous neural stem cells and functional recovery from spinal cord injury. SCI can decrease the phosphorylated (p)/total (t)-GSK-3β ratio, which leads to an increase in apoptosis, whereas treatment with GSK-3 inhibitors can promote neurogenesis. In addition, several therapies for the treatment of SCI involve signaling pathways associated with GSK-3. Furthermore, signaling pathways associated with GSK-3 also participate in the pathological process of neuropathic pain that remains following SCI. The present review summarized the roles of GSK-3 signaling in SCI to aid in the understanding of GSK-3 signaling during the pathological processes of SCI and to provide evidence for the development of comprehensive treatments.

Somatic Cell Reprogramming for Nervous System Diseases: Techniques, Mechanisms, Potential Applications, and Challenges

Nervous system diseases present significant challenges to the neuroscience community due to ethical and practical constraints that limit access to appropriate research materials. Somatic cell reprogramming has been proposed as a novel way to obtain neurons. Various emerging techniques have been used to reprogram mature and differentiated cells into neurons. This review provides an overview of somatic cell reprogramming for neurological research and therapy, focusing on neural reprogramming and generating different neural cell types. We examine the mechanisms involved in reprogramming and the challenges that arise. We herein summarize cell reprogramming strategies to generate neurons, including transcription factors, small molecules, and microRNAs, with a focus on different types of cells.. While reprogramming somatic cells into neurons holds the potential for understanding neurological diseases and developing therapeutic applications, its limitations and risks must be carefully considered. Here, we highlight the potential benefits of somatic cell reprogramming for neurological disease research and therapy. This review contributes to the field by providing a comprehensive overview of the various techniques used to generate neurons by cellular reprogramming and discussing their potential applications.

Valproic Acid: A Promising Therapeutic Agent in Glioma Treatment

Glioma, characterized by infiltrative growth and treatment resistance, is regarded as the most prevalent intracranial malignant tumor. Due to its poor prognosis, accumulating investigation has been performed for improvement of overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) in glioma patients. Valproic acid (VPA), one of the most common histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs), has been detected to directly or synergistically exert inhibitory effects on glioma in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we generalize the latest advances of VPA in treating glioma and its underlying mechanisms and clinical implications, providing a clearer profile for clinical application of VPA as a therapeutic agent for glioma.