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Ning L, He C, Lu C, Huang W, Zeng T, Su Q. Association between basal metabolic rate and cardio-metabolic risk factors: Evidence from a Mendelian Randomization study. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28154. [PMID: 38590845 PMCID: PMC10999873 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Cardio-metabolic risk factors play a crucial role in the development of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is a fundamental physiological parameter that affects energy expenditure and might contribute to variations in these risk factors. However, the exact relationship between BMR and cardio-metabolic risk factors has remained unclear. Methods We employed Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis to explore the association between BMR (N: 534,045) and various cardio-metabolic risk factors, including body mass index (BMI, N: 681,275), fasting glucose (N: 200,622), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (N = 403,943), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (N = 431,167), total cholesterol (N: 344,278), and triglycerides (N: 441,016), C-reactive protein (N: 436,939), waist circumference (N: 232,101), systolic blood pressure (N: 810,865), diastolic blood pressure (N: 810,865), glycated haemoglobin (N: 389,889), and N-terminal prohormone brain natriuretic peptide (N: 21,758). We leveraged genetic variants strongly associated with BMR as instrumental variables to investigate potential causal relationships, with the primary analysis using the Inverse Variance Weighted (IVW) method. Results Our MR analysis revealed compelling evidence of a causal link between BMR and specific cardio-metabolic risk factors. Specifically, genetically determined higher BMR was associated with an increased BMI (β = 0.7538, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.6418 to 0.8659, p < 0.001), lower levels of HDL cholesterol (β = -0.3293, 95% CI: 0.4474 to -0.2111, p < 0.001), higher levels of triglycerides (β = 0.1472, 95% CI: 0.0370 to 0.2574, p = 0.0088), waist circumference (β = 0.4416, 95% CI: 0.2949 to 0.5883, p < 0.001), and glycated haemoglobin (β = 0.1037, 95% CI: 0.0080 to 0.1995, p = 0.0377). However, we did not observe any significant association between BMR and fasting glucose, LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, C-reactive protein, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, or N-terminal prohormone brain natriuretic peptide (all p-values>0.05). Conclusion This MR study provides valuable insights into the relationship between BMR and cardio-metabolic risk factors. Understanding the causal links between BMR and these factors could have important implications for the development of targeted interventions and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limeng Ning
- Department of Cardiology, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No. 85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Changjing He
- Pediatric surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, Baise, China
- Health Management Service Center, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No.85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
- Guangxi Clinical Medical Research Center for Hepatobiliary Diseases, China
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials in Bone and Joint Degenerative Diseases, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Preclinica1 and Translational Research on Bone and Joint Degenerative Diseases, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathology in Hepatobiliary Diseases, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clinical Cohort Research on Bone and Joint Degenerative Disease, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Medical Research Basic Guarantee for Immune-Related Disease Research, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Biomedical Material Research, China
- Key Laboratory of Research on Prevention and Control of High Incidence Diseases in Western Guangxi, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Pathology in Tumors of Guangxi, China
- Key Laboratory of Research on Clinical Molecular Diagnosis for High Incidence Diseases in Western Guangxi, China
- Baise Key Laboratory of Mo1ecular Pathology in Tumors, China
- Baise Key Laboratory for Metabolic Diseases, China
- Baise Key Laboratory for Research and Deve1opment on Clinical Mo1ecular Diagnosis for High-Incidence Diseases, China
- Key Laboratory of the Bone and Joint Degenerative Diseases, China
- Laboratory of the Atherosclerosis and Ischemic Cardiovascular Diseases, China
- Life Science and C1inical Medicine Research Center, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Research of High Incidence Diseases in Guangxi, China
| | - Chunliu Lu
- Health Management Service Center, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No.85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Wanzhong Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No. 85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Ting Zeng
- Health Management Service Center, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No. 85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Qiang Su
- Department of Cardiology, Jiangbin Hospital of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, No. 85 Hedi Road, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
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Gesner M, Frishman WH. Drug Therapy for Hypertriglyceridemia and Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome: Focus on Volnesorsen. Cardiol Rev 2023; 31:325-329. [PMID: 36129324 DOI: 10.1097/crd.0000000000000468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Volanesorsen is a new medication that may soon be used in the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia and familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS). Volanesorsen works via binding to Apo C-III mRNA and degrading that mRNA, thus decreasing the synthesis of Apo C-III. This decreased synthesis of Apo C-III will increase the binding of triglycerides to LDL receptors and decrease triglyceride plasma levels. It is important to note that currently there are 3 other medication classes available for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia, including niacin, fish oil/omega-3-fatty acids, and fibrates. However, there are no Food and Drug Administration-approved medications to treat FCS. Recently, volanesorsen was approved in the European Union for the treatment of FCS, but that indication was denied in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration. This was due to the side effects of the drug. Volanesorsen may cause a decrease in platelet count, renal toxicity, and elevate liver enzymes. The current drug regimen for volanesorsen consists of 285 mg once a week by subcutaneous injection, with a recommendation to immediately stop the medication if any of these side effects are noted, to prevent long-term complications. With these side effects reported, fish oil/omega-3-fatty acids seem likely the best choice when it comes to treating hypertriglyceridemia. If FCS is debilitating or greatly affecting the patient's life, then one could recommend volanesorsen. Otherwise, at this time, the side effects of volanesorsen may be too severe to justify its use for mild episodes of FCS or hypertriglyceridemia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William H Frishman
- Departments of Medicine and Cardiology, New York Medical College/Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY
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Maadani M, Sarraf NS, Alilou S, Aeinfar K, Sadeghipour P, Zahedmehr A, Fathollahi MS, Hashemi Ghadi SI, Zavarehee A, Zolfaghari M, Zolfaghari R. Relationship Between Preprocedural Lipid Levels and Periprocedural Myocardial Injury in Patients Undergoing Elective Percutaneous Coronary Intervention. Tex Heart Inst J 2022; 49:488444. [PMID: 36515930 PMCID: PMC9809085 DOI: 10.14503/thij-20-7384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Periprocedural myocardial injury is a predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality after percutaneous coronary intervention. METHODS The authors examined the effects of preprocedural lipid levels (low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides) in 977 patients with coronary artery disease who underwent elective percutaneous coronary intervention. RESULTS Elevated cardiac troponin I level (≥5× the upper limit of normal) was used to indicate periprocedural myocardial injury. Serum lipid samples were collected 12 hours preprocedurally. Cardiac troponin I was collected 1, 6, and 12 hours postprocedurally. Correlations between preprocedural lipid levels and postprocedural cardiac troponin I were studied. Low-density lipoprotein levels were less than 70 mg/dL in 70% of patients and greater than 100 mg/dL in only 7.4% of patients; 13% had triglyceride levels greater than or equal to 150 mg/dL, and 96% had high-density lipoprotein levels less than 40 mg/dL. Patients with elevated cardiac troponin I had significantly lower left ventricular ejection fraction than did those with cardiac troponin I levels less than 5× the upper limit of normal (P = .01). Double-and triple-vessel disease were more common in patients with elevated cardiac troponin I (P < .002). Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses revealed no statistically significant associations between lipid levels and postprocedural cardiac troponin I elevation, possibly because such large proportions of included patients had low levels of low-density lipoprotein (70%) and a history of statin intake (86%). CONCLUSION The authors found no association between lipid profile and periprocedural myocardial injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Maadani
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Sari Sarraf
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sanam Alilou
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kamran Aeinfar
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parham Sadeghipour
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Zahedmehr
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmood Sheikh Fathollahi
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyyed Isa Hashemi Ghadi
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Zavarehee
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Zolfaghari
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Zolfaghari
- Cardiovascular Intervention Research Center, Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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From Prevention to Disease Perturbations: A Multi-Omic Assessment of Exercise and Myocardial Infarctions. Biomolecules 2020; 11:biom11010040. [PMID: 33396843 PMCID: PMC7824308 DOI: 10.3390/biom11010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
While a molecular assessment of the perturbations and injury arising from diseases is essential in their diagnosis and treatment, understanding changes due to preventative strategies is also imperative. Currently, complex diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), the leading cause of death worldwide, suffer from a limited understanding of how the molecular mechanisms taking place following preventive measures (e.g., exercise) differ from changes occurring due to the injuries caused from the disease (e.g., myocardial infarction (MI)). Therefore, this manuscript assesses lipidomic changes before and one hour after exercise treadmill testing (ETT) and before and one hour after a planned myocardial infarction (PMI) in two separate patient cohorts. Strikingly, unique lipidomic perturbations were observed for these events, as could be expected from their vastly different stresses on the body. The lipidomic results were then combined with previously published metabolomic characterizations of the same patients. This integration provides complementary insights into the exercise and PMI events, thereby giving a more holistic understanding of the molecular changes associated with each.
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Morjane I, Charoute H, Ouatou S, Elkhattabi L, Benrahma H, Saile R, Rouba H, Barakat A. Association of c.56C > G (rs3135506) Apolipoprotein A5 Gene Polymorphism with Coronary Artery Disease in Moroccan Subjects: A Case-Control Study and an Updated Meta-Analysis. Cardiol Res Pract 2020; 2020:5981971. [PMID: 32832146 PMCID: PMC7424381 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5981971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Coronary artery diseases (CAD) are clinical cardiovascular events associated with dyslipidemia in common. The interaction between environmental and genetic factors can be responsible for CAD. The present paper aimed to examine the association between c.56C > G (rs3135506) APOA5 gene polymorphism and CAD in Moroccan individuals and to perform an association update meta-analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS The c.56C > G variant was genotyped in 122 patients with CAD and 134 unrelated controls. Genetic association analysis and comparison of biochemical parameters were performed using R statistical language. In addition, a comprehensive meta-analysis including eleven published studies in addition to our case-control study results was conducted using Review Manager 5.3. Publication bias was examined by Egger's test and funnel plot. RESULTS The case-control study data showed that the c.56C > G polymorphism was associated with CAD susceptibility under codominant (P-value = 0.001), recessive (P-value <0.001) and log-additive (P-value = 0.008) inheritance models. In addition, this polymorphism was significantly associated with increased levels of systolic and diastolic blood pressures, triglycerides, glycemia, and total cholesterol. Furthermore, meta-analysis showed a significant association between the c.56C > G gene polymorphism and increased risk of CAD under recessive (OR = 3.39[1.77-6.50], P value <0.001) and homozygote codominant (OR = 3.96[2.44-6.45], P value <0.001) models. CONCLUSION Our case-control study revealed a significant association between c.56C > G polymorphism and CAD in the Moroccan population. In addition, meta-analysis data supported the implication of this polymorphism in CAD susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imane Morjane
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
- Laboratory of Biology and Health, Faculty of Sciences Ben M'Sik, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Hicham Charoute
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Sanaa Ouatou
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Lamiae Elkhattabi
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
- Laboratory of Biology and Health, Faculty of Sciences Ben M'Sik, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Houda Benrahma
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
- National Reference Laboratory (LNR), Faculty of Medicine, Mohammed VI University of Health Sciences (UM6SS), Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Rachid Saile
- Laboratory of Biology and Health, Faculty of Sciences Ben M'Sik, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Hassan Rouba
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Abdelhamid Barakat
- Laboratory of Genomics and Human Genetics, Institut Pasteur Du Maroc, Casablanca, Morocco
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Tian X, Zuo Y, Chen S, Li H, He Y, Zhang L, An J, Wu S, Luo Y, Wang A. Association of changes in lipids with risk of myocardial infarction among people without lipid-lowering therapy. Atherosclerosis 2020; 301:69-78. [PMID: 32388104 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2020.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Although serum lipids are widely accepted as independent predictors of myocardial infarction (MI), there is insufficient evidence for associations of changes in lipid levels with MI. The present study aimed at investigating the associations between changes in lipids and incidence of MI in people without lipid-lowering therapy. METHODS 64,031 Chinese participants (mean age: 53.42 ± 11.95 years) without previous MI were enrolled in the study. The participants were divided into four categories based on quartiles of lipid changes. Multivariable Cox regression models were used to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for MI. RESULTS During a median follow-up of 7.03 years, 599 individuals developed MI. After adjustment for covariates, increased total cholesterol (TC), increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), increased non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C), and decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) were associated with elevated risk of MI, with HRs (95% CIs) in the highest quartile group compared with the lowest quartile group of 1.56 (1.21-2.01), 1.96 (1.49-2.57), 1.95 (1.52-2.50), and 0.69 (0.53-0.90), respectively. However, changes in triglyceride (TG) were not associated with MI risk (p = 0.8030). CONCLUSIONS Changes in levels of TC, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, and HDL-C, but not TG, were associated with risk of MI. Early detection and control of lipid levels may be beneficial and necessary for young people and those with healthy lipid levels at baseline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Tian
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Yingting Zuo
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Shuohua Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Kailuan Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology,Tangshan, China
| | - Haibin Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Yan He
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Licheng Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Ji An
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Shouling Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Kailuan Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology,Tangshan, China.
| | - Yanxia Luo
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Beijing, China.
| | - Anxin Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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Osoti AO, Page ST, Richardson BA, Guthrie BL, Kinuthia J, Polyak SJ, Farquhar C. Postpartum metabolic syndrome after gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, a prospective cohort study. Pregnancy Hypertens 2019; 18:35-41. [PMID: 31493627 PMCID: PMC6884686 DOI: 10.1016/j.preghy.2019.08.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We evaluated the 6-month postpartum risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS), a marker of future cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, comparing women whose most recent pregnancies were complicated with gestational hypertension (GH) or preeclampsia (PE) versus those who had normotensive pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN This was a prospective cohort study in which women with GH or PE and normotensive women were actively enrolled during the first 12 weeks after delivery in Nairobi, Kenya. Participants were interviewed, blood pressures and anthropometric measurements including waist circumference obtained at enrollment and 6 months postpartum. Fasting lipid profile and plasma glucose were measured at 6 months postpartum. A generalized linear regression model with Poisson distribution was used to estimate crude relative risk (RR) of 6-month postpartum MetS and adjusted RR (ARR) after adjusting for apriori potential confounders. RESULTS Among 194 postpartum women, 63 (32%) had experienced GH or PE. Prevalence of MetS at 6 months postpartum was higher among women whose pregnancies were complicated with GH or PE (34.9%) compared to those who were normotensive (11.5%). GH and PE were associated with a 3-fold or greater risk of MetS (ARR) 3.01; 95% Confidence interval [CI] 1.58, 5.71; p < 0.001) overall and three of the five components, namely hypertension (ARR 3.35 [2.04, 5.51], p < 0.001), hypertriglyceridemia (ARR 3.25 [1.16-9.10], p = 0.01), and fasting hyperglycemia (ARR 6.20 [1.07-35.76], p = 0.03), compared to having normal blood pressures during pregnancy. CONCLUSION At 6 months postpartum, GH and PE were associated with three-fold or higher risk of MetS and especially hypertension, fasting hypertriglyceridemia, and fasting hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred O Osoti
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Stephanie T Page
- Department of Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Diabetes Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Barbra A Richardson
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, USA
| | - Brandon L Guthrie
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - John Kinuthia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Department of Research and Programs and Department of Reproductive Health, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Stephen J Polyak
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Carey Farquhar
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, USA; Department of Medicine (Allergy and Infectious Diseases), University of Washington, Seattle, USA
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