Extrapleural abscess secondary to infection of the sternoclavicular joint. Report of two cases

Minimally Invasive Surgery for Sternoclavicular Joint Infection with Osteomyelitis, Large Abscesses, and Mediastinitis

Background

Sternoclavicular joint infections require en bloc resection for radical cure; however, this aggressive procedure may result in multiple adverse events. Therefore, performing minimally invasive surgery is desirable. In this report, we describe a case of sternoclavicular joint infection complicated by osteomyelitis, large abscesses, and mediastinitis that was successfully treated with incision and drainage. Case Presentation. A 42-year-old man with no medical history presented to our hospital with complaints of painful swelling in the left chest wall and acute dyspnea. Computed tomography revealed arthritis of the left sternoclavicular joint, osteomyelitis of the clavicle and sternum, anterior mediastinitis, and abscesses in the neck, chest wall, and retrosternal and extrapleural spaces. Gram staining of the aspirated pus revealed clusters of gram-positive cocci. A diagnosis of Staphylococcus aureus sternoclavicular joint infection with locoregional spread was made. Emergency surgery was performed following adequate resuscitation. A skin incision was made in the second intercostal space. The joint capsule was widely opened, necrotic tissue was curetted, and closed suction drains were placed in the abscess cavities and connected to a negative pressure system. The wound was then closed using primary sutures. The postoperative course was uneventful. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus was cultured from the pus. The patient was discharged on postoperative day 14. Osteomyelitis worsened within a few weeks after surgery but recovered with wound management and six weeks of antibiotic therapy. The patient has had no recurrence of infection for two years.

Conclusions

Incision and drainage proved to be an effective minimally invasive surgical treatment for sternoclavicular joint infection with osteomyelitis, large abscesses, and mediastinitis caused by methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus.

Diagnosis and management of sternoclavicular joint infections: a literature review

The sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is anatomically and clinically significant considering its proximity to important neuro-vascular structures like the subclavian vessels and the phrenic nerve. Infections of this joint masquerade multiple disorders, delay diagnosis and spread to the bone and deep tissues. There is no standardized workup and treatment protocol for sternoclavicular joint infections (SCJI) as defined in literature. Here, we review the existing literature to understand the current knowledge of the diagnosis and treatment of SCJI. We searched English publications in PubMed and included clinical trials, case reports, case series, retrospective cohort studies, literature and systematic reviews after excluding non-infectious etiology of SCJ pathologies. There are many risk factors for SCJI, such as immunocompromised status, intravenous drug use, trauma and arthropathies. But a large percentage of patients with disease have none of these risk factors. SCJIs can present with fever, joint swelling, immobility, and rarely with vocal cord palsy or dysphagia. While Staphylococcus aureus causes over 50% of SCJI cases, other pathogens such as Pseudomonas and Mycobacterium are frequently seen. When diagnosed early, the infection can be medically managed with antibiotics or joint aspirations. Most cases of SCJI, however, are diagnosed after extensive spread to soft tissue and bones requiring en-bloc resection with or without a muscle flap. Complications of undertreatment can range from simple abscess formation to mediastinitis, even sepsis. SCJIs are rare but serious infections prompting early detection and interventions. Most cases of SCJI treated adequately show complete resolution in months while retaining maximum functionality. Key features of proper healing include aggressive physiotherapy to prevent adhesive shoulder capsulitis and decreased range of motion.

Sternoclavicular septic arthritis caused by Staphylococcus aureus: excellent results from medical treatment and limited surgery

Background: Aggressive surgery such as en bloc joint resection is favored for treating uncommon sternoclavicular (SC) septic arthritis, based on expert opinion and small case series. We analyzed the clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of patients with Staphylococcus aureus SC septic arthritis treated medically or with limited surgery. Methods: All adult patients with this septic arthritis at the Asan Medical Center between September 2009 and December 2016 were reviewed. Limited surgery was defined as simple incision, drainage, and debridement of the infected joint. Results: Of 22 patients enrolled, 11 received medical treatment only, and 11 underwent limited surgery, and none underwent aggressive surgery. Most patients (73%) had underlying predisposing conditions such as infection at a distant site, diabetes and liver cirrhosis, and none had intravenous drug abuse or HIV infection. Complications such as chest wall and/or neck abscess, clavicular and/or sternal osteomyelitis were identified in 18 patients (82%). Patients with chest wall and/or neck abscesses tended more often to undergo limited surgery than patients without such abscesses (73% vs. 27%, p = .09). The median duration of intravenous antibiotics was 35 days (IQR, 25-46 days). Treatment was successful in all cases. In a median 53-week follow-up (IQR, 8-171 weeks), there was no relapse of arthritis or joint deterioration. Conclusions: Medical treatment alone or with limited surgery could be successful therapeutic strategies for complicated S. aureus SC septic arthritis in selected patients.

MRI findings for unilateral sternoclavicular arthritis: differentiation between infectious arthritis and spondyloarthritis

OBJECTIVES

To analyze and identify magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and clinical findings for the differentiation between infectious arthritis and spondyloarthritis in patients with unilateral sternoclavicular arthritis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively collected and evaluated the magnetic resonance (MR) images of 21 patients diagnosed with unilateral sternoclavicular arthritis, including 12 with infection and nine with spondyloarthritis, between 2004 and 2017. Capsular distension, extracapsular fluid collection, periarticular muscle edema, the prevalence and distribution of bone marrow edema, and the prevalence and size of bone erosions were assessed on the MR images. Clinical data were also reviewed.

RESULTS

Capsular distension was more prominent in patients with infectious arthritis than those with spondyloarthritis (p = 0.002); extracapsular fluid collection and periarticular muscle edema were also more common in infectious arthritis than spondyloarthritis (p < 0.001, respectively); moreover, bone erosions were larger in infectious arthritis than spondyloarthritis (p = 0.023). Other findings significantly associated with infectious arthritis included advanced age (p = 0.007), an elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) level (p = 0.001), and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) (p < 0.001). The prevalence and distribution of bone marrow edema and the prevalence of bone erosions on MRI, the white blood cell count, and sex showed no significant differences between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Capsular distension, extracapsular fluid collection, periarticular muscle edema, and the size of bone erosions on MRI, as well as the age, CRP level, and ESR of patients, could be helpful for differentiating infectious arthritis from spondyloarthritis involving the sternoclavicular joint.

Surgical management of sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis

INTRODUCTION

Infections of the sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) account for less than 1% of all joint infections. There are no standardized diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms defined in literature. This study intended to report the risk factors, the bacterial spectrum, the extent and localization and the clinical outcome of SCJ infections.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical charts of 13 patients (8 men, five women, mean age 37.6 years) with SCJ infections between Januray 1st 2008 and October 30th 2015 for clinical parameters and radiological studies. All patients were interviewed during their follow-up along with clinical examination and assessing the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand questionnaire (DASH).

RESULTS

Nine patients presented with local chest pain and swelling; in 4 patients, the prevalent symptom was pain without local signs of inflammation. Full blood count revealed a mean leukocytosis of 15 × 10⁹ L and a mean CRP of 21.0 mg/dl. Approximately 61.5% reported known diabetes mellitus. 10 patients presented an involvement of surrounding structures. All patients received a preoperativ CT scan. Each patient was treated via SCJ resection without intraoperative complications. Primary wound closure was possible in all cases. The mean follow-up was 95 days. Wound culture revealed Staphylococcus aureus in all patients. Pathological examination affirmed acute osteomyelitis in 7 patients. Four patients required the intensive care of which 2 patients died from septic shock. Recurrent infection was encountered in 3 patients who underwent revision surgery. Mean DASH Score was 18.7.

CONCLUSION

CT should be routinely obtained to recognize the possible extends to the surrounding structures. SCJ resection can result in satisfactory clinical results and should be considered in cases of extended infections including the surrounding structures. Empiric antibiotic coverage should contain cephalosporin or extended-spectrum penicillin. Inappropriate or less-invasive surgical procedures may cause recurrencent infections, especially in cases of osteomyelitis.

Vocal cord palsy as a presenting feature of sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis

Sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis (SSA) is rare and often difficult to manage condition. The sternoclavicular joint is an unusual site of septic arthritis in healthy persons, but may be commonly involved in intravenous drug users, primary or secondary immunosuppressive disorders, infections or the presence of infected central lines. After thorough literature search, no cases have yet been reported on SSA leading to vocal cord palsy. The following case describes a male patient who presented to hospital with left vocal cord palsy and symptoms consistent with aero-digestive tract malignancy. Radiological examination and subsequent response to treatment demonstrated the only causative pathology to be an ipsilateral septic sternoclavicular joint.

Sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis following paraspinal muscle abscess and septic lumbar spondylodiscitis with epidural abscess in a patient with diabetes: a case report

BACKGROUND

Septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is extremely rare, and usually appears to result from hematogenous spread. Predisposing factors include immunocompromising diseases such as diabetes.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 61-year-old man with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus presented to our emergency department with low back pain, high fever, and a painful mass over his left SCJ. He had received two epidural blocks over the past 2 weeks for severe back and leg pain secondary to lumbar disc herniation. He did not complain of weakness or sensory changes of his lower limbs, and his bladder and bowel function were normal. He had no history of shoulder injection, subclavian vein catheterization, intravenous drug abuse, or focal infection including tooth decay. CT showed an abscess of the left SCJ, with extension into the mediastinum and sternocleidomastoid muscle, and left paraspinal muscle swelling at the level of L2. MRI showed spondylodiscitis of L3-L4 with a contiguous extradural abscess. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from cultures of aspirated pus from his SCJ, and from his urine and blood. The SCJ abscess was incised and drained, and appropriate intravenous antibiotic therapy was administered. Two weeks after admission, the purulent discharge from the left SCJ had completely stopped, and the wound showed improvement. He was transferred to another ward for treatment of the ongoing back pain.

CONCLUSION

Diabetic patients with S. aureus bacteremia may be at risk of severe musculoskeletal infections via hematogenous spread.

Resection arthroplasty for septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint

BACKGROUND

Treatment for septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular (SC) joint with concomitant osteomyelitis of the clavicle often requires joint resection rather than simple incision and drainage. We evaluated the effectiveness of resection arthroplasty for patients with septic arthritis of the SC joint.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 10 patients who underwent resection arthroplasty for SC joint septic arthritis between 1996 and 2008. The mean patient age was 52.8 ± 10.5 years (range, 40-72 years), the mean symptom duration before surgery was 16.9 days (range, 2-60 days), and the mean follow-up period was 35.4 ± 42.2 months (range, 10-108 months). Diagnoses were based on physical examination, laboratory tests, and radiologic studies including magnetic resonance imaging. Each patient had concomitant osteomyelitis of the clavicle. In addition, 4 patients had mediastinitis and 1 had osteomyelitis of the adjacent ribs. All patients underwent SC joint resection and intramedullary ligament reconstruction, followed by intravenous antibiotics for 4 to 8 weeks. Intraoperative cultures were positive in 6 patients.

RESULTS

All infections resolved, with only 1 patient having complications-systemic sepsis and pneumonia. The mean ranges of motion were 146° of forward flexion (range, 135°-155°) and 48° of external rotation (range, 40°-55°), with the internal rotation level ranging from T5 to L3. The mean superior migration of the clavicle was 1.5 mm (range, 0-4 mm), and the mean visual analog pain score was 1.4 ± 0.7 (range, 0-2).

CONCLUSION

Resection arthroplasty in patients with septic SC joints results in relatively good shoulder function.

Surgical management of sternoclavicular septic arthritis

INTRODUCTION

Septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is a rare condition and has many diagnostic and therapeutic standards. The purpose of this study was to evaluate our experience with surgical and diagnostic management to provide a surgical pathway to help surgeons treat this disease.

METHOD

We retrospectively reviewed five patients who were managed surgically between 1999 and 2007. All patients underwent structured diagnostic and treatment protocols. The functional outcome was evaluated using the Constant Score.

PATIENTS

The patients had the following underlying medical conditions: laryngeal cancer, port-explantation linked to a rectum carcinoma, spondylodiscitis, and brain stem infarct with reduced general condition; one patient had no underlying medical problems. Three patients underwent a simple incision, debridement and drainage, and two patients underwent an extended intervention with partial resection of the sternoclavicular joint. The mean duration of follow-up was 29 months (range 24-36 months). All patients had well-healed wounds without signs of reinfection. The Constant Score for the functional outcome at the time of the last follow-up was 76 points (range 67-93 points). All patients recovered completely from SCJ disease.

CONCLUSION

Our recommendations for the management of septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint include standard treatment steps and assessments. The early stages of infection can be managed by simple incision, debridement and drainage. In advanced stages of infection, a more radical intervention is preferable.

Bilateral sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis secondary to indwelling central venous catheter: a case report

Introduction

Septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint is rare, comprising approximately 0.5% to 1% of all joint infections. Predisposing causes include immunocompromising diseases such as diabetes, HIV infection, renal failure and intravenous drug abuse.

Case presentation

We report a rare case of bilateral sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis in an elderly patient secondary to an indwelling right subclavian vein catheter. The insidious nature of the presentation is highlighted. We also review the literature regarding the epidemiology, investigation and methods of treatment of the condition.

Conclusion

SCJ infections are rare, and require a high degree of clinical suspicion. Vague symptoms of neck and shoulder pain may cloud the initial diagnosis, as was the case in our patient. Surgical intervention is often required; however, our patient avoided major intervention and settled with parenteral antibiotics and washout of the joint.

Sternoclavicular joint septic arthritis and mediastinitis. A case report and review of the literature

Septic arthritis of the sternoclavicular joint is rare. Its causes have been reported to include immuno-compromizing diseases, intravenous drug abuse, fractures of the clavicle or catheterization of the subclavian vein. We report a case of septic arthritis of the SCJ in a diabetic patient following periarticular injection of steroids in the ipsilateral shoulder, as this route of infection has not been documented, to our knowledge, in the literature to date. We review the literature regarding epidemiology and methods of surgical treatment that have been proposed, and present our own surgical experience. Bacterial infection should always be suspected in cases of SCJ arthritis. If surgery is required, it is important to remember that bony procedures leave vascular structures exposed, making their cover by myoplasty mandatory.

[Anaerobic sternocostoclavicular septic arthritis: a case report]

Septic arthirtis of the sternocostoclavicular joint is exceptional and usually occurs in immunodeficient subjects. The clinical presentation may be misleading, a rheumatoid disease often being suggested. We report a case of secondary joint infection caused by anaerobic bacteria and discuss the diagnostic problems involved as well as the disease course and the therapeutic options proposed in the literature. The diagnosis calls upon computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, leading to joint needle aspiration. Appropriate imaging enables an assessment of the anatomic damage and is useful for guiding surgical treatment under adapted antibiotic coverage.

Sternoclavicular septic arthritis: review of 180 cases

We review 170 previously reported cases of sternoclavicular septic arthritis, and report 10 new cases. The mean age of patients was 45 years; 73% were male. Patients presented with chest pain (78%) and shoulder pain (24%) after a median duration of symptoms of 14 days. Only 65% were febrile. Bacteremia was present in 62%. Common risk factors included intravenous drug use (21%), distant site of infection (15%), diabetes mellitus (13%), trauma (12%), and infected central venous line (9%). No risk factor was found in 23%. Serious complications such as osteomyelitis (55%), chest wall abscess or phlegmon (25%), and mediastinitis (13%) were common. Staphylococcus aureus was responsible for 49% of cases, and is now the major cause of sternoclavicular septic arthritis in intravenous drug users. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in injection drug users declined dramatically with the end of an epidemic of pentazocine abuse in the 1980s. Sternoclavicular septic arthritis accounts for 1% of septic arthritis in the general population, but 17% in intravenous drug users, for unclear reasons. Bacteria may enter the sternoclavicular joint from the adjacent valves of the subclavian vein after injection of contaminated drugs into the upper extremity, or the joint may become infected after attempted drug injection between the heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging should be obtained routinely to assess for the presence of chest wall phlegmon, retrosternal abscess, or mediastinitis. If present, en-bloc resection of the sternoclavicular joint is indicated, possibly with ipsilateral pectoralis major muscle flap. Empiric antibiotic therapy may need to cover methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

Complications of the treatment of the acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joint injuries, including instability

Treatment of AC joint injuries and SC joint injuries continues to evolve. The risk of complications of both the operative and nonoperative management of these injuries can be minimized by the treating physician if the physician thoroughly evaluates and understands the problem. Making an accurate diagnosis of the underlying pathology and then selecting the appropriate treatment for this will minimize the risk of an associated complication. Paying attention to detail and using the appropriate technique before any operative intervention is chosen will decrease the risk of failure and complication. Close follow-up and early detection of complications will lead to less severe sequelae. AC joint injuries are more common and operative management is accepted for specific indications. Most Orthopaedic Surgeons are comfortable treating these. SC joint injuries are less common and nonoperative treatment is the mainstay. As our approach to these complex problems evolves, we must keep a wary eye towards avoiding and minimizing the complications of the new techniques.

A case of extrapleural empyema

A 49-year-old man with diabetes mellitus and alcoholic liver cirrhosis presented with dyspnoea and fever. A chest computed tomography scan revealed three areas of loculated pleural effusion. Initially, the patient was thought to have an intrapleural empyema and was treated with intravenous antibiotics and closed drainage. However, as he did not improve, he was then treated with open drainage. During open drainage, the patient was diagnosed to have an extrapleural empyema and improved following open drainage treatment.

Current presentation and optimal surgical management of sternoclavicular joint infections

BACKGROUND

Infection of the stemoclavicular joint is unusual, and treatment of this entity has not been standardized. We sought to characterize the current presentation and optimal management of this disease.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of the last 7 patients undergoing operation for suppurative infections of the stemoclavicular joint at this institution. Patients were interviewed regarding upper extremity function after formal joint resection.

RESULTS

Predisposing factors were common and included diabetes mellitus (n = 2), clavicular fracture (n = 1), human immunodeficiency virus infection (n = 1), immunosuppression (n = 1), and pustular skin disease (n = 1). All patients presented with local symptoms including clavicular mass and tenderness. Diagnosis and evaluation were facilitated by cross-sectional imaging. Organisms isolated included Staphylococcus aureus, group G streptococcus, and Proteus and Propionibacterium species. Antibiotic therapy and simple drainage and debridement were generally ineffective, leading to recurrence of infection in 5 of 6 patients treated initially in this manner. Six patients were treated with resection of the stemoclavicular joint and involved portions of first or second ribs with soft tissue coverage by advancement flap from the ipsilateral pectoralis major muscle. Response to this therapy was excellent, with cure in all patients, no wound complications, and excellent upper extremity function at long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Aggressive surgical management including resection of the sternoclavicular joint and involved ribs with pectoralis flap closure would appear to be the preferred treatment for all but the most minor infections of the sternoclavicular joint. This approach has minimal impact on upper extremity function.

Pneumothorax necessitans presenting as a presternal pneumothoracocele

A 31-year-old woman who is an intravenous drug abuser developed sternoclavicular joint infection with mediastinal and subcutaneous tissue abscesses that communicated through an erosion in the manubrium caused by osteomyelitis. Air entrapment from a subsequent apical pneumothorax formed a localized anterior "pneumothoracocele." We referred to this condition as "pneumothorax necessitans," and we suggest including it in the differential diagnosis of anterior chest wall masses.

Aggressive surgical management of sternoclavicular joint infections

BACKGROUND

Although the sternoclavicular joint is an unusual site for infection, thoracic surgeons may preferentially be called on to coordinate management of cases refractory to antibiotic therapy because of the anatomic relationship of this joint to major vascular structures.

METHODS

Since 1994 we have surgically managed nine sternoclavicular joint infections in eight patients. Associated medical problems were frequent and included diabetes mellitus (n = 2), end-stage renal disease (n = 2), hematologic disorders (n = 2), and multiple joints affected by sepsis (n = 4). Open joint exploration with drainage and débridement with the use of general anesthesia was performed in four patients. The remaining four patients (one with bilateral sternoclavicular joint infections) had computed tomographic evidence of diffuse joint and surrounding bone destruction with infection extending into mediastinal soft tissues. Surgical therapy for these five joint infections involved en bloc resection of the sternoclavicular joint with an ipsilateral pectoralis major muscle covering the bony defect.

RESULTS

There were two deaths unrelated to the surgical procedure. After a mean follow-up of 20 months, the remaining six survivors (seven joints) have complete healing with no apparent limitation in the range of motion even after en bloc resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Most cases of early sternoclavicular joint infections will respond to conservative measures. However, when radiographic evidence of infection beyond the sternoclavicular joint is present, en bloc resection, although seemingly aggressive, results in immediate eradication of all infection with negligible functional morbidity. Prolonged antibiotic therapy or continued local drainage procedures appear to have little value in these cases, adding only to patient care costs and the potential sequelae of chronic infections.

[Surgical treatment of sternoclavicular osteomyelitis]

Osteomyelitis of the sternocosto-clavicular (SCC) articulation is a rare infection usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus and enterobacteria. It usually occurs in individuals with osteoarticular disease or predisposing factors. Prolonged antibiotic treatment and articular puncture are generally accepted. Authors do not agree on an established protocol. We report three cases of SCC septic arthritis in two previously healthy patients with two foci of infection (one perianal abscess and one dental extraction) and in one adult patient with Still's disease. Pain and intense inflammation was referred to the shoulder, with scarce leukocytosis and fever reaching 38 degrees C. The germs responsible were S. aureus, Bacteroides fragilis and B. oralis. Two of the patients had local, regional abscesses. Long-term antibiotic treatment failed in all cases and surgery for SCC resection and myoplasty of the pectoralis major muscle was required. Recovery was good and shoulder and arm mobility was excellent. We propose medical treatment and articular diagnostic-therapeutic puncture as the first line of therapy for this disease. When evolution is poor or when complications appear, such as abscesses or mediastinitis, we conclude that radical debridement and myoplasty of the pectoralis major muscle are indicated.