Varus malalignment of the talar neck. Its effect on the position of the foot and on subtalar motion

A rare combination of talar neck fracture (Hawkins 3) and bimalleolar ankle fracture: A case report

INTRODUCTION

The combination of talar neck fractures with malleolar fractures is a rare. This rare association accounts for 0.3 % of all bone fractures. We describe a one-of-a-kind ankle dislocation with a talar neck fracture and a bimalleolar fracture.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 24-year-old male patient presented to the emergency department after a traffic accident. A physical examination revealed swelling and tenderness in the left ankle. The radiograph and the CT scan showed a Hawkins type III comminuted talar neck fracture, with an oblique fracture of the medial malleolus and an infra-syndesmotic fracture of the lateral malleolus. The patient underwent open reduction and internal fixation involving screw fixation for talar neck fracture and the medial malleolus and plating for the lateral malleolus. The treatment and post-operative follow-up showed successful healing and functional recovery, with a score of 85 on the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle-hindfoot at the last follow up.

DISCUSSION

The discussion includes insights on the rarity of this fracture combination, treatment challenges, and potential complications such as avascular necrosis. This article emphasizes the importance of achieving anatomical reduction and stable fixation for optimal outcomes in such complex fractures.

CONCLUSION

This case report highlights the successful treatment of a rare combination of talar neck and bimalleolar ankle fractures, emphasizing the importance of anatomical reduction and stable fixation for optimal outcomes in complex fractures.

Locking vs. non-locking plate fixation in comminuted talar neck fractures: a biomechanical study using cadaveric specimens

BACKGROUND

Talar neck fractures are rare but potentially devastating injuries, with early reduction and rigid fixation essential to facilitate union and prevent avascular necrosis. Even small degrees of malunion will alter load transmission and subtalar joint kinematics. Changes in fixation techniques have led to dual plating strategies. While locked plating has perceived advantages in porotic bone and comminution, its biomechanical benefits in talar neck fractures have not been shown.

AIM

To compare the strength of locking vs. non-locking plate fixation in comminuted talar neck fractures.

METHOD

Seven pairs of cadaveric tali were randomised to locking or non-locking plate fixation. A standardised model of talar neck fracture with medial comminution was created, and fixation performed. The fixed specimens were mounted onto a motorised testing device, and an axial load applied.

RESULTS

Peak load to failure, deformation at failure, work done to achieve failure, and stiffness of the constructs were measured. No statistically significant difference was found between locking and non-locking constructs for all parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Both constructs provide similar strength to failure in talar neck fracture fixations. Mean peak load to failure did not exceed the theoretical maximum forces generated of 1.1 kN when weight-bearing. We would advocate caution with early mobilisation in both fixations.

Influence of Surgical Approach and Fixation on Complications in Talus Fractures: A Multicenter Review

Fractures of the talus are infrequent injuries often associated with substantial morbidity and imperfect outcomes. We undertook a retrospective review of talus fractures at multiple level 1 trauma centers in order to identify common treatment patterns and potential predictors of complications. All cases of talar fractures meeting inclusion criteria at our institution were reviewed. 54 of 103 talus fractures met inclusion criteria. 33 (61.1%) involved the talar neck, 13 (24.1%) the talar body, and 6 (9.2%) involved the lateral process. The most common etiology was motor vehicle accidents, accounting for 27 (50.0%). Mean follow up was 13.6 months (range 8-52 months). 37 (68.5%) fractures were fixated with screws, and 17 (31.5%) were fixated with a plate construct. Single and dual incisions were used in 63.0% and 25.9% of cases, respectively. Complications were seen in 46.3% of cases, with post-traumatic osteoarthritis being the most common complication (35.1%). Avascular necrosis occurred in 4 (7.4%) patients. No independent variables met the statistical threshold to be associated with complications. The present data alludes to possibility of over-reporting complications due to historical literature and the need for further studies.

Parameters That Can Be Used to Quantify Reduction Accuracy in Talar Neck Fractures and Malunions: A PRISMA-Compliant Scoping Review and Meta-Analysis

Understanding the three-dimensional anatomy of the talar neck is essential in assessing the accuracy of reduction in talar neck fractures as well as for planning surgical correction for talar malunions. However, the geometrical parameters that describe this anatomy are sparsely reported in the orthopedics literature. We aimed to identify from the existing literature, geometrical parameters that describe the anatomy of the talar neck, determine how these are measured, and their normative values. A scoping literature review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The primary searches were conducted on the PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases. Any original research study looking at the human talus neck geometry was included. Parameters that described the anatomy of the talar neck were identified, and pooled estimates were determined by the random-effects meta-analysis model. Heterogeneity was assessed by the I2 test and leave-one-out meta-analysis. Subgroup analysis was done to compare the values of parameters between the Asian and Non-Asian populations. The risk of bias was assessed by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Case Series Tool. The combined searches yielded 6326 results, of which 21 studies were included in the review and 15 in six different sets of metanalysis. The majority of the studies (n=19, 90.5%) evaluated adult tali, and only two (9.5%) evaluated pediatric tali. In most of the studies (n=13, 61.9%), talus neck geometry was evaluated on dry bones or anatomical specimens; evaluation by imaging techniques (radiographs, CT, MRI, and radiostereometric analysis) was used in eight studies, (39.1%). A total of eight different geometrical parameters (neck length, height, width, declination angle, inclination angle, torsion angle, circumference, and cross-sectional area) were identified. Except for talar torsion, variability was noted in methods of measurement of all other parameters. Subgroup analysis revealed that Asians had a higher neck height as compared to non-Asians; other parameters were not significantly different. Although the literature reports geometrical parameters to assess the talar geometry, the methods of measurement of these parameters are variable. Most of the available literature describes measurement techniques on cadaveric tali, and there is no literature on how these parameters should be measured on conventional CT or MRI slices. Further research needs to focus on the standardization of measurement techniques for these parameters on conventional CT and/or MRI scans.

The role of cadaveric simulation in talus fracture research: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Talus fractures are rare (<1% of all fractures), and their rarity limits the number of studies available to guide management. In instances such as this, cadaveric studies can play an important role. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify and describe the current body of literature on cadaveric studies of fractures of the talus.

METHODS

Through multiple electronic database searches (Medline, Embase, Scopus) we identified a broad body of cadaveric research into talus fractures, and these were classified into 4 main themes. Study characteristics were summarised along with any descriptive results and conclusions.

RESULTS

The search yielded 484 articles of which 19 met the inclusion criteria. They provide valuable insights into benefits and drawbacks of surgical approaches to the talus, particularly with regard to direct visualisation of anatomic reduction, and risks of neurovascular or tendon compromise. For talar neck fractures it is clear that cannulated screws offer superior fixation over plates, however, are inferior when considering anatomic reduction of the fracture. Direct visualisation of fracture reduction is far superior to intraoperative radiographic assessment, and mal-reduction leads to reduced subtalar joint range of motion, midfoot deformity, and increased joint contact pressures.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a summary of the existing literature surrounding the use of cadaver studies in fractures of the talus. We have identified gaps in the literature, particularly surrounding strength of fixation of new locking plate fixation techniques.

Union Rates of Talar Neck Fractures With Substantial Bone Defects Treated With Autograft

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the union rate of talar neck fractures with substantial bone defects treated acutely with autologous tibial bone graft during primary osteosynthesis.

METHODS

A case series at a level 1 trauma center was performed to identify consecutive patients who underwent operative fixation of talar neck fracture with autograft (Current Procedural Terminology codes 28445 and 20902) between 2015 and 2018. "Substantial bone defect" was defined as a gap greater than 5 mm in the sagittal plane and greater than one-third of width of the talar neck in the coronal plane. Postoperative foot computed tomographic (CT) scans were obtained for all patients. Primary outcome was union, and secondary outcomes were malunion, avascular necrosis (AVN), post-traumatic arthritis (PTA), and patient-reported outcomes (PROs).

RESULTS

Twelve patients with 12 fractures were included in the series, with an average length of follow-up of 26 months (range: 7-55) The average age was 34 years (17-59), and the most common mechanism of injury was motor vehicle crash. The Hawkins classification of the fractures was 4 type II (2 type IIA and 2 type IIB) (33%) and 8 type III (67%). Four fractures (33%) were open fractures. Union was achieved in 11 patients (92%). There was 1 malunion (8%). AVN was identified on postoperative CT scans in 11 patients (92%). Three of these 11 eventually showed collapse. Ten patients (83%) had radiographic evidence of some degree of ankle PTA, and 12 patients (100%) had radiographic evidence of some degree of subtalar PTA. Average Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System-Short Form score was 37 (32-45) and average Foot and Ankle Ability Measure activities of daily living and sports subscale scores were, respectively, 61 (31-87) and 31 (0-71), respectively. Average visual analog scale score was 5 (0-10), and average Foot Function Index was 49 (7-89). SF-36 scores showed fair to poor outcomes in the majority of patients.

CONCLUSION

In this relatively small series, tibial autograft in primary osteosynthesis of comminuted talar neck fractures with substantial bone defects is associated with excellent union rates and low malunion rates. Despite high union rates, secondary outcomes of AVN with or without collapse, ankle and subtalar PTA, and relatively low PROs were common.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, case series.

Conservative and Surgical Treatment of Talar Fractures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Clinical Outcomes and Complications

The integrity of the talus is crucial for the physiologic function of the feet. The present study sought to summarize the available evidence on clinical outcomes and complications following conservative and surgical treatment of talar fractures. We systematically searched Medline via OVID to find relevant studies with a follow-up of at least six months. Hereafter, the success and complication rates were extracted and analyzed in a random effects proportion meta-analysis. Complications were defined as avascular bone necrosis (AVN) and posttraumatic osteoarthritis (OA). Additionally, a subgroup analysis was performed for fracture localization (talar neck fractures (TN) and combined talar body/neck fractures (TN/TB)) and severity of the fracture. The quality of the included studies was assessed utilizing the Coleman Methodology Score (CMS). A total of 29 retrospective studies, including 987 fractures with a mean follow-up of 49.9 months, were examined. Success rates were 62%, 60%, and 50% for pooled fractures, TN, and TN/TB, respectively. The overall complication rate for AVN was 25%. The rate was higher for TN (43%) than TN/TB (25%). Talar fractures revealed a 43% posttraumatic osteoarthritis (OA) rate in our meta-analysis. Success rates showed an association with fracture severity, and were generally low in complex multi-fragmentary fractures. The mean CMS was 34.3 (range: 19-47), indicating a moderate methodological quality of the studies. The present systematic review on clinical outcomes of patients undergoing conservative or surgical treatment for talar fractures reveals a lack of reliable prospective evidence. Talar fractures are associated with relatively poor postoperative outcomes, high rates of AVN, and posttraumatic osteoarthritis. Poor outcomes revealed a positive association with fracture severity. Prospective studies investigating predictors for treatment success and/or failure are urgently needed to improve the overall quality of life and function of patients undergoing surgical treatment due to talar fractures.

Use of Calcaneal Osteotomies in the Correction of Inframalleolar Cavovarus Deformity

Cavovarus deformity is a complicated condition most commonly resulting from neurologic, posttraumatic, or iatrogenic pathologic conditions. Careful evaluation of the cavovarus patient is necessary in determining appropriate treatment course. Weight-bearing radiographs are necessary, and advances in computed tomographic technology can be beneficial in identifying level of involvement. In the case of operative treatment of inframalleolar deformity, assessment of the subtalar joint position and relation of calcaneocuboid joint can be of assistance. Multiple osteotomies have been described providing uniplanar, biplanar, and triplanar correction and in the appropriate setting can prove beneficial to the surgeon in treating hind-foot cavovarus deformity.

Talar Neck Fractures: Single or Double Approach?

Correct approach selection in talar neck injuries is crucial to obtain adequate access to the entire fracture site avoiding malreduction and angular deformity. The major concern about a single incision technique is lack of visualization. Combined lateral and medial approaches are strongly recommended in complex talar neck fractures providing better control of dorsal and varus displacement of the talar head.

Talus Fractures: Evaluation and Treatment

The talus is unique in having a tenuous vascular supply and 57% of its surface covered by articular cartilage. Fractures of the head, neck, or body regions have the potential to compromise nearby joints and impair vascular inflow, necessitating surgical treatment with stable internal fixation in many cases. The widely preferred approach for many talar neck and body fractures is a dual anterior incision technique to achieve an anatomic reduction, with the addition of a medial malleolar osteotomy as needed to visualize the posterior talar body. Percutaneous screw fixation has also demonstrated success in certain patterns. Despite this modern technique, osteonecrosis and osteoarthritis remain common complications. A variety of new treatments for these complications have been proposed, including vascularized autograft, talar replacement, total ankle arthroplasty, and improved salvage techniques, permitting some patients to return to a higher level of function than was previously possible. Despite these advances, functional outcomes remain poor in a subset of severely injured patients, making further research imperative.

Fractures of the Talus: Current Concepts

Talus fractures continue to represent a challenging and commonly encountered group of injuries. Its near-complete articular cartilage surface, and its role in force transmission between the leg and foot, makes successful treatment of such injuries a mandatory prerequisite to regained function. Familiarity with the complex bony, vascular, and neurologic anatomy is crucial for understanding diagnostic findings, treatment indications, and surgical techniques to maximize the likelihood of anatomic bony union. This review details the structure and function of the talus, a proper diagnostic workup, the treatment algorithm, and post-treatment course in the management of talus fractures.

[Outcome of corrective osteotomy of shortened medial foot column after old talar neck fracture]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effectiveness of corrective osteotomy for shortened medial foot column after old talar neck fracture.

METHODS

The clinical data of 10 patients with shortened medial foot column after old talar neck fracture between June 2012 and May 2017 was retrospectively analyzed. There were 7 males and 3 females with an average age of 45.8 years (mean, 21-67 years). The time from fracture to corrective osteotomy was 9-60 months (mean, 20.9 months). The preoperative visual analogue scale (VAS) score was 7.1±1.2, the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) score was 48.5±12.3, and the short-form 36 health survey scale (SF-36) score was 46.7±10.5. All 10 cases received open wedge osteotomy of medial talus. Among them, 2 received subtalar fusion and Achilles tendon lengthening, 2 lateralizing calcaneal osteotomy, and 2 Achilles tendon lengthening.

RESULTS

All incisions healed by first intention. All patients were followed up 13-72 months (mean, 38.0 months). The X-ray film showed that the angle between longitudinal axis of 1st metatarsal bone and talus increased from (-9.6±4.5) ° before operation to (1.3±2.7) ° at last follow-up ( t=16.717, P=0.000); the angle between longitudinal axis of calcaneus and tibia increased from (-12.0±7.4) ° before operation to (-1.5±4.8) ° at last follow-up ( t=5.711, P=0.000). At last follow-up, the VAS score, AOFAS score, and SF-36 score were 1.6±1.0, 88.3±5.4, and 85.4±9.2, respectively, which increased significantly when compared with the preoperative scores ( t=13.703, P=0.000; t=14.883, P=0.000; t=16.919, P=0.000). X-ray film and CT showed that the osteotomy and arthrodesis sites healed well at 2-4 months after operation.

CONCLUSION

It's a proper procedure of anatomic reduction and reconstruction for patients with shortened medial foot column and good articular cartilage morphology after old talar fracture. Opening wedge osteotomy of medial talus is recommended and can obtain satisfactory clinical and radiographic results.

Triple Arthrodesis for Adult-Acquired Flatfoot Deformity

Originally described as a means to address fixed deformities or uncontrolled movement of the hindfoot observed in paralytic foot deformities, triple arthrodesis has evolved into a powerful procedure for the correction of a variety of foot deformities. Over the past decade, multiple advances have been made with respect to diagnostic imaging, fixation options, bone graft substitutes, and postoperative regimens. While this operation requires experience and skill to execute, when properly performed, it allows for correction of deformity and a plantigrade and ideally pain-free foot for ambulation. The purpose of this review is to highlight advances in the procedure and its application to the rigid planovalgus foot.

Level of Evidence:

Level V, review.

Hindfoot Injuries: How to Avoid Posttraumatic Varus Deformity?

Posttraumatic hindfoot varus may result from nonoperative treatment or inadequate reduction and fixation of talar and calcaneal fractures. Adequate visualization of the talar neck via bilateral approaches is essential in avoiding malreduction. In cases of medial comminution of the talar neck, lag screws must be avoided and the use of single or double plates should be considered. A Schanz screw introduced into the calcaneal tuberosity is instrumental in realigning shortening, varus, or valgus deformity of the heel. Special attention should be paid to addressing impaction of the medial facet of both the talus and calcaneus to avoid hindfoot varus.

Current Concepts in Talar Neck Fracture Management

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

Talar neck fractures are a rare but potentially devastating injury, which require a comprehensive understanding of the unique osteology, vasculature, and surrounding anatomy to recognize pathology and treat correctly. The purpose of this article is to describe both classic and current literature to better understand the evolution of talar neck fracture management.

RECENT FINDINGS

Urgent reduction of displaced fractures and dislocations remains the standard of care to protect the soft tissue envelope and neurovascular structures. Delayed definitive fixation has proven to be safe. CT is the imaging modality of choice to fully identify the fracture pattern and associated injuries. Anatomic reduction and restoration of the peritalar articular surfaces are the pillars of talar neck fracture treatment. Dual incision approach with plate and screw fixation has become the modern surgical strategy of choice to accomplish these goals. Although complications such as osteonecrosis (ON) and posttraumatic arthritis (PTA) can still occur at high rates, treatment should be dictated by patient symptoms. Talar neck fractures pose treatment challenges with both initial injury and potential sequelae. Future research will determine whether modern treatment algorithms will decrease complication rate and improve patient outcome.

Traumatic Injury to the Subtalar Joint

Traumatic injury to the subtalar joint occurs during subtalar dislocations, talar and calcaneal fractures, and fracture-dislocations. After closed reduction of subtalar dislocations, peripheral talar or calcaneal fractures need to be ruled out by computed tomography scanning. In fractures and fracture-dislocations of the talus and calcaneus involving the subtalar joint, anatomic reconstruction of joint congruity is essential for functional rehabilitation. Failure to anatomically reduce the subtalar joint potentially leads to chronic instability, subtalar arthritis and posttraumatic hindfoot deformity. Despite adequate management, subtalar arthritis may develop as a result of primary cartilage damage at the time of injury.

Management of Talar Fractures

Fractures of the talus are significant injuries with associated significant complications where the recovery zenith is less frequently good to excellent, and more commonly fair to satisfactory. These outcomes are a consequence of combinations of the inherent intrinsic and surrounding anatomy, technical and logistic difficulties in adequate fracture access, and the high-energy mechanisms typically associated with these injuries that further traumatize the surrounding tissues. This article reviews and provides current management recommendations for these devastating injuries.

Talar Body Reconstruction for Nonunions and Malunions

BACKGROUND

Talar body and neck nonunions and malunions may undergo a reconstructive surgery when joint cartilage is still viable, and no talar collapse or infection has occurred. This is a rare condition and the studies supporting the procedure have small number of cases. The objective of the present study is to report a case series of six patients who underwent talar reconstructions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six patients with talar malunions or nonunions who underwent surgical treatment were reviewed in this retrospective study. There were three nonunions and two malunions of the talar body and one malunion of the talar neck. Clinical evaluation included all the parameters used in the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) hindfoot scale. Arthritic degeneration of the ankle joint was assessed according to a modified Bargon scale.

RESULTS

The mean followup was 86 months (range 24-282 months). There were no cases of postoperative avascular necrosis of the talus. Four of the six patients in our series required a subtalar fusion as part of the reconstruction procedure. The average preoperative AOFAS hindfoot score was 34, and at the time of the last evaluation, it was 74. The mean preoperative score on the modified Bargon scale for the tibiotalar joint was 1.17. At the last followup, it rose to 1.33. Three different deformities of the talus were identified (a) flattening of the talus (b) extra-articular step and (c) intraarticular step.

CONCLUSION

Reconstruction of talar nonunions and malunions improved function in selected patients with a low risk of complications. Three different anatomical patterns of talar nonunions and malunions were identified.

Joint-Preserving Surgery for Talar Malunions or Nonuions

OBJECTIVE

To describe the technique and analyze the outcomes of joint-preserving surgical treatments which included anatomical reconstruction or alignment correction for talar malunions or nonunions, and avoid development of degenerative changes in the adjacent joints.

METHODS

Eight patients who had painful talar malunions or nonunions treated between 2009 and 2015 were included in this retrospective study. The mean age of the patients was 35.6 years, with patients aged from 18 to 58 years. Two patients had talar neck fractures and six had talar body fractures. According to a classification of post-traumatic talar deformities, five patients were classified as type I (malunion and/or residual joint displacement), two as type II (nonunion with displacement), and one as type III (malunion with partial avascular necrosis [AVN]). Of these patients, six cases were treated with an osteotomy through the malunited fracture or removal of the pseudarthrosis, and two cases were corrected by supramalleolar or calcaneal osteotomies owing to complete disappearance of the former fracture lines. The follow-up evaluation methods included the 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) score, the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) score, range of motion (ROM), and radiological analysis. The differences between postoperative scores and preoperative scores were evaluated statistically with the paired Student's t-test. Significance was assumed at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up time was 25.6 months. No wound healing problems or infections were observed. Solid union was obtained without redislocation in all cases, and with no signs of development or progression of AVN. At a mean of 25.6 months (range, 16-36 months) after reconstruction, all patients were satisfied with the result. The mean AOFAS score increased from 30.0 ± 7.0 pre-operatively to 86.5 ± 7.8 post-operatively (P < 0.001), the mean SF-36 score increased from 38.8 ± 4.1 to 81.4 ± 7.7 (P < 0.001), and the average ROM (tibiotalar joint) increased from 40.5° ± 8.7° to 43.9° ± 7.2° (P < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

Joint-preserving procedures for talar malunions or nonunions can bring about satisfactory outcomes, and the appropriate procedure should be adopted according to different types of post-traumatic deformities.

Treatment of Comminuted Talar Neck Fractures With Use of Minifragment Plating

OBJECTIVES

To assess the healing and radiographic outcomes of displaced and comminuted talar neck fractures treated with medial position screws augmented with lateral minifragment plate fixation.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

SETTING

Two level I trauma centers.

PATIENTS

The records of 26 patients with displaced and comminuted talar neck fractures who underwent open reduction and internal fixation with medial-sided position screws augmented with lateral minifragment plates.

INTERVENTION

Surgery consisted of medial and lateral approaches to the talus, fixation with a laterally placed minifragment plate, and screw construct augmenting sagittal-plane-oriented, medial-sided position screws.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

The incidences of nonunion, malunion, avascular necrosis, post-traumatic arthritis, and symptomatic implants.

RESULTS

Nonunion occurred in 3/26 (11.5%) displaced and comminuted talar neck fractures. There were no instances of malunion. Avascular necrosis developed in 7/26 (27%) cases. Post-traumatic arthritis was the most common complication affecting 10/26 (38%) tali. The subtalar joint was most commonly affected. There were no instances of hardware removal due to symptomatic medial impingement.

CONCLUSIONS

Lateral minifragment plate fixation augmenting medially placed sagittal plane position screws provides a length stable construct that prevents talar neck shortening and malunion. Medial position screws can help avoid secondary surgeries for removal of symptomatic implants due to medial impingement as is common with medially based minifragment plates. This fixation strategy should be considered in the setting of displaced and comminuted talar neck fractures.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Pedobarographic and Radiological Analysis After Treating a Talus Neck Fracture

Misalignment of the talar neck after surgical repair can redistribute the load among the posterior, middle, and anterior facets of the subtalar joints, which can change the joint biomechanics, cause arthritis, and impair function. However, we found no studies analyzing the plantar pressures after treatment of talus neck fracture. We determined the dynamic plantar pedobarographic and radiographic characteristics and ankle range of motion, function, and pain among patients after surgical repair of talar neck fractures. A total of 19 patients completed the assessments. The median follow-up period was 29 (range 12 to 113) months. At the last visit, the mean pain score was 3.3 on a 10-cm visual analog scale. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society function scale score was fair (73.5), and the mean range of motion was restricted in 4 planes. The mean maximum force was lower in the hindfoot (p = .002) and midfoot (p = .03) of the injured foot than in the noninjured foot. The mean peak pressure was lower in the hindfoot (p = .05) but higher in the forefoot (p = .03). Radiographic measurements revealed differences between the feet in the talo-first metatarsal angle (p = .002), Meary's angle (p = .001), and the medial cuneiform-fifth metatarsal angle (p = .002). Radiographic and pedobarographic analysis showed an elevated arch in the injured foot. Thus, talar injury and immobilization can affect the stance and the gait cycle in these patients. Pain, range of motion, function, and the weight transfer pattern should be evaluated carefully during the follow-up period to provide the best postoperative results.

Osteotomies of the Talar Neck for Posttraumatic Malalignment

A talar neck malunion is one of the major complications following operative or nonoperative treatment of talar neck fractures. The most common posttraumatic talar malunion results in varus malalignment of the talar neck and can lead to painful overload of the lateral foot and substantial impairment of hindfoot function. Secondary procedures in patients with painful malunited talar neck fracture include salvage procedures and anatomic reconstruction procedures. Anatomic reconstruction of the talar neck is a reliable surgical treatment to regain function, decrease pain, and restore hindfoot alignment and range of motion.

Open Reduction for AO/OTA 81-B3 (Hawkins 3) Talar Neck Fractures: The Natural Delivery Method

Fractures of the talar neck with subtalar and tibiotalar joint dislocation (AO/OTA 81-B3) represent a treatment challenge for the orthopedic surgeon. The magnitude of deformity and complexity of the pathoanatomy adds to concerns for soft tissue embarrassment to convey an urgency of surgical intervention. Previous studies have described the several techniques for talar reduction, including medial malleolar osteotomy, posterior Schanz pin manipulation, or posteromedial incision to facilitate relocation at the time of definitive open treatment. We describe a simple technique for stepwise surgical intervention using adjuncts to reduction on the surgical field that facilitate an atraumatic relocation of the displaced body fragment through a standard lateral incision, simplifying fixation of the residual talar neck fracture. A reasonable metaphor for the technique is its similarity to reducing an obstetric shoulder dystocia in the delivery of a newborn infant.

Fractures of the Talus: State of the Art

Talus fractures occur rarely but are often associated with complications and functional limitations. Urgent reduction of associated dislocations is recommended with open reduction and internal fixation of displaced fractures when adjacent soft tissue injury permits. Delayed definitive fixation may reduce the risks of wound complications and infections. Restoration of articular and axial alignment is necessary to optimize ankle and hindfoot function. Despite this, posttraumatic arthrosis occurs frequently after talar neck and body fractures, especially with comminution of the talar body. Osteonecrosis is reported in up to half of talar neck fractures, although many of these injuries will revascularize without collapse of the talar dome. Initial fracture displacement and presence of open fractures increase the risk of osteonecrosis. Talar process fractures may be subtle and easily missed on plain radiographs. Advanced imaging will provide detail to facilitate treatment planning.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level V. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Mechanical Comparison of Headless Screw Fixation and Locking Plate Fixation for Talar Neck Fractures

For talar neck fractures, open reduction and internal fixation have been thought to facilitate revascularization and prevent osteonecrosis. Newer screw systems allow for placement of cannulated headless screws, which provide compression by virtue of a variable pitch thread. The present study compared the biomechanical fixation strength of cannulated headless variable-pitch screw fixation and locking plate fixation. A reproducible talar neck fracture was created in 14 fresh cadaver talar necks. Talar head fixation was then performed using 2 cannulated headless variable-pitch 4-mm/5-mm diameter (4/5) screws (Acutrak; Acumed, Hillsboro, OR) and locking plate fixation. Headless variable-pitch screw fixation had lower failure displacement than did locking plate fixation. No statistically significant differences were found in failure stiffness, yield stiffness (p = .655), yield load (p = .142), or ultimate load between the 2 fixation techniques. Cannulated headless variable-pitch screw fixation resulted in better failure displacement than locking plate fixation in a cadaveric talus model and could be considered a viable option for talus fracture fixation. Headless, fully threaded, variable-pitch screw fixation has inherent advantages compared with locking plate fixation, because it might cause less damage to the articular surface and can compress the fracture for improved reduction. Additionally, plate fixation can increase the risk of avascular necrosis owing to the wider incision and dissection of soft tissues.

Fractures of the talus

The talus is the most proximal bone of the hindfoot that couples the foot to the leg. It is the second most common fracture of the tarsal bones, second in frequency to the calcaneous. However, overall injuries to the talus are relatively rare, and most surgeons have little experience in managing them. This article discusses fractures of the talus, including injuries to the talar neck, body, head, and processes. Although subtalar dislocations and osteochondral injuries are important topics, they are not addressed in this article.

Epidemiological study on talus fractures

OBJECTIVE

to analyze the characteristics of patients with talus fractures and the injuries that they present.

METHODS

retrospective analysis on patients hospitalized in the Institute of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Hospital das Clínicas, School of Medicine of the University of São Paulo, between 2006 and 2011, with talus fractures. Patient profile parameters, risk factors, fracture characteristics, treatment data and acute complications were analyzed.

RESULTS

analysis on 23 cases showed that men were more affected than women, with a ratio of 4.8:1. The most frequent trauma mechanism was traffic accidents, followed by falls from a height. The most frequent type of fracture was at the neck of the talus, with 17 cases. Among the 23 cases, seven had peritalar dislocation at the time of presentation, four had exposed fractures and 11 presented other associated fractures. The mean length of time between the trauma and the definitive treatment was six days, while the mean length of hospital stay was 11 days. Three patients presented acute postoperative complications.

CONCLUSION

talus fractures occurred most commonly in the region of the talar neck and most frequently in young males who suffered high-energy trauma. In almost half of the cases, there were other associated fractures. The length of hospital stay was 11 days.

A new look at the Hawkins classification for talar neck fractures: which features of injury and treatment are predictive of osteonecrosis?

BACKGROUND

Osteonecrosis and posttraumatic arthritis are common after talar neck fracture. We hypothesized that delay of definitive fixation would not increase the rate of osteonecrosis, but that the amount of initial fracture displacement, including subtalar and/or tibiotalar dislocations, would be predictive. We investigated the possibility of dividing the Hawkins type-II classification into subluxated (type-IIA) and dislocated (type-IIB) subtalar joint subtypes.

METHODS

The cases of eighty patients with eighty-one talar neck and/or body fractures who had a mean age of 36.7 years were reviewed. The fractures included two Hawkins type-I, forty-four type-II (twenty-one type-IIA and twenty-three type-IIB), thirty-two type-III, and three type-IV fractures. Open fractures occurred in twenty-four patients (30%).

RESULTS

One deep infection, two nonunions, and two malunions occurred. After a mean of thirty months of follow-up, sixteen of sixty-five fractures developed osteonecrosis, but 44% of them revascularized without collapse. Osteonecrosis never occurred in fractures without subtalar dislocation (Hawkins type I and IIA), but 25% of Hawkins type-IIB patterns developed osteonecrosis (p = 0.03), and 41% of Hawkins type-III fractures developed osteonecrosis (p = 0.004). Osteonecrosis occurred after 30% of open fractures versus 21% of closed fractures (p = 0.55). Forty-six fractures were treated with urgent open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) at a mean of 10.1 hours, primarily for open fractures or irreducible dislocations. With the numbers studied, the timing of reduction was not related to the development of osteonecrosis. Thirty-five patients had delayed ORIF (mean, 10.6 days), including ten with Hawkins type-IIB and ten with Hawkins type-III fractures initially reduced by closed methods, and one (5%) of the twenty developed osteonecrosis. Thirty-five patients (54%) developed posttraumatic arthritis, including 83% of those with an associated talar body fracture (p < 0.0001) and 59% of those with Hawkins type-III injuries (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Following talar neck fracture, osteonecrosis of the talar body is associated with the amount of the initial fracture displacement, and separating Hawkins type-II fractures into those without (type IIA) and those with (type-IIB) subtalar dislocation helps to predict the development of osteonecrosis as in this series. It never occurred when the subtalar joint was not dislocated. When it does develop, osteonecrosis often revascularizes without talar dome collapse. Delaying reduction and definitive internal fixation does not increase the risk of developing osteonecrosis.

Treatment of displaced talar neck fractures using delayed procedures of plate fixation through dual approaches

PURPOSE

Treatment of talar neck fractures is challenging. Various surgical approaches and fixation methods have been documented. Clinical outcomes are often dissatisfying due to inadequate reduction and fixation with high rates of complications. Obtaining satisfactory clinical outcomes with minimum complications remains a hard task for orthopaedic surgeons.

METHODS

In the period from May 2007 to September 2010, a total of 31 cases with closed displaced talar neck fractures were treated surgically in our department. Injuries were classified according to the Hawkins classification modified by Canale and Kelly. Under general anaesthesia with sufficient muscle relaxation, urgent closed reduction was initiated once the patients were admitted; if the procedure failed, open reduction and provisional stabilisation with Kirschner wires through an anteromedial approach with tibiometatarsal external fixation were performed. When the soft tissue had recovered, definitive fixation was performed with plate and screws through dual approaches. The final follow-up examination included radiological analysis, clinical evaluation and functional outcomes which were carried out according to the Ankle-Hindfoot Scale of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS), patient satisfaction and SF-36.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight patients were followed up for an average of 25 months (range 18-50 months) after the injury. Only two patients had soft tissue complications, and recovery was satisfactory with conservative treatment. All of the fractures healed anatomically without malunion and nonunion, and the average union time was 14 weeks (range 12-24 weeks). Post-traumatic arthritis developed in ten cases, while six patients suffered from avascular necrosis of the talus. Secondary procedures included three cases of subtalar arthrodesis, one case of ankle arthrodesis and one case of total ankle replacement. The mean AOFAS hindfoot score was 78 (range 65-91). According to the SF-36, the average score of the physical component summary was 68 (range 59-81), and the average score of the mental component summary was 74 (range 63-85).

CONCLUSIONS

Talar neck fractures are associated with a high incidence of long-term disability and complications. Urgent reduction of the fracture-dislocation and delayed plate fixation through a dual approach when the soft tissue has recovered may minimise the complications and provide good clinical outcomes.

Corrective arthrodeses and osteotomies for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment: indications, techniques, results

Hindfoot malunions after fractures of the talus and calcaneus lead to severe disability and pain. Corrective osteotomies and arthrodeses aim at functional rehabilitation and reduction of pain resulting from post-traumatic arthritis, eccentric loading and impingement due to hindfoot malunion. Preoperative analysis should include the three-dimensional outline of the malunion, the presence of post-traumatic arthritis, non-union, or infection, the extent of any avascular necrosis or comorbidities. In properly selected, compliant patients with intact cartilage cover little or no, AVN, and adequate bone quality, a corrective joint-preserving osteotomy with secondary internal fixation may be carried out. In the majority of cases, realignment is augmented by arthrodesis for post-traumatic arthritis. Fusion is restricted to the affected joint(s) to minimise loss of function. Correction of the malunion is achieved by asymmetric joint resection, distraction and structural bone grafting with corrective osteotomies for severe axial malalignment. Bone grafting is also needed after resection of a fibrous non-union, sclerotic or necrotic bone. Numerous clinical studies have shown substantial functional improvement and high subjective satisfaction rates from pain reduction after corrective osteotomies and fusions for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment. This article reviews the indications, techniques and results of corrective surgery after talar and calcaneal malunions and nonunions based on an easy-to-use classification.

Corrective arthrodeses and osteotomies for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment: indications, techniques, results

Hindfoot malunions after fractures of the talus and calcaneus lead to severe disability and pain. Corrective osteotomies and arthrodeses aim at functional rehabilitation and reduction of pain resulting from post-traumatic arthritis, eccentric loading and impingement due to hindfoot malunion. Preoperative analysis should include the three-dimensional outline of the malunion, the presence of post-traumatic arthritis, non-union, or infection, the extent of any avascular necrosis or comorbidities. In properly selected, compliant patients with intact cartilage cover little or no, AVN, and adequate bone quality, a corrective joint-preserving osteotomy with secondary internal fixation may be carried out. In the majority of cases, realignment is augmented by arthrodesis for post-traumatic arthritis. Fusion is restricted to the affected joint(s) to minimise loss of function. Correction of the malunion is achieved by asymmetric joint resection, distraction and structural bone grafting with corrective osteotomies for severe axial malalignment. Bone grafting is also needed after resection of a fibrous non-union, sclerotic or necrotic bone. Numerous clinical studies have shown substantial functional improvement and high subjective satisfaction rates from pain reduction after corrective osteotomies and fusions for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment. This article reviews the indications, techniques and results of corrective surgery after talar and calcaneal malunions and nonunions based on an easy-to-use classification.

HINTEGRA total ankle replacement: survivorship analysis in 684 patients

BACKGROUND

Total ankle replacement is increasingly recommended for patients with end-stage ankle osteoarthritis. We analyzed the survivorship of 722 arthroplasties performed with one type of three-component total ankle prosthesis.

METHODS

Seven hundred and seventy-nine primary total ankle arthroplasties (741 patients) were performed between May 2000 and July 2010 with use of the HINTEGRA three-component prosthesis. A logistic multiple regression model was used to identify independent risk factors for prosthesis failure in 684 patients (722 ankles). The mean time to final follow-up (and standard deviation) was 6.3 ± 2.9 years.

RESULTS

Seven hundred and twenty-two ankles (684 patients) were available for survivorship analysis at the latest follow-up. The overall survival rates were 94% and 84% after five and ten years, respectively. Sixty-one ankles had a revision arthroplasty (twenty-seven both components, thirteen the tibial component only, and fourteen the talar component only) or were converted to a fusion (seven ankles).There were no polyethylene failures. There were no amputations. The generation category of the prosthesis, the cause of ankle osteoarthritis, and the age of the patient were identified as independent risk factors for prosthesis failure.

CONCLUSIONS

The midterm survivorship of the HINTEGRA implant was comparable with that of other third-generation total ankle replacements.

Surgical technique: talar neck osteotomy to lengthen the medial column after a malunited talar neck fracture

BACKGROUND

Treatment of malunited talar neck fractures is challenging, and few studies address anatomic reconstruction as an alternative to arthrodesis. We describe a new surgical approach attempting to improve function and avoid development of degenerative changes in the adjacent joints.

DESCRIPTION OF TECHNIQUE

Indications included malunited talar neck fractures. Through a dorsomedial approach, a correcting osteotomy with interposition of an autograft or allograft was performed and internally fixed using buttress plate and/or screws.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed seven patients in whom the new technique was indicated for malunited talar neck fractures. The mean age of the patients was 42 years (range, 17-60 years). We analyzed the patients clinically and radiographically with a minimum followup of 2.5 years (mean, 4 years; range, 2.5-9.8 years).

RESULTS

At followup, all patients experienced substantial pain relief. No development of avascular necrosis or radiographic arthritic changes were observed. Physical categories of the SF-36 score showed great improvements. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society hindfoot score increased from 41±19 preoperatively (range, 20-62) to 84±11 (range, 68-97). The average talar-first metatarsal angle increased dramatically. All but one patient showed radiographic union of the talar osteotomy. Implant removal was performed in three patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these observations, correctional osteotomy is a reasonable option for treating patients with malunited talar neck fractures by providing a pain-free foot with good function, recreating anatomy, and involving a low risk of postoperative complications. Further studies with longer followups are required to confirm these findings persist with time.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, therapeutic study. See the Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Posterior talar fracture with dislocation of both talo-navicular and subtalar joints: a variant type II of the Sneppens classification

A 63-year-old man fell from a ladder, thus causing an axial compression injury to the right ankle. Severe deformity was evident and the ankle could not be reduced by simple manipulation. The skin was tented and appearing critically contused. Radiographs revealed an oblique fracture of the posterior aspect of the talar body with dislocation of both the talo-navicular and subtalar joints, an injury previously not described in the literature. The fracture-dislocation was anatomically reduced within 3 h of presentation and stability achieved with two headless buried compression screws. CT scan confirmed anatomical reduction and the patient remained non-weight bearing in a cast for 6 weeks. One year postoperatively, the patient remains pain-free with no radiological signs of avascular necrosis of the talus. This injury is unique and despite its severity and soft tissue compromise good quality reduction and internal fixation resulted in an excellent clinical outcome.

Varus hindfoot deformity after talar fracture

Posttraumatic malalignment after talar neck fractures invariably leads to painful functional impairment. Anatomic reduction and definitive, stable osteosynthesis at the primary surgical intervention is preventative. Secondary anatomic reconstruction with joint preservation should be considered in the absence of arthrosis in the peritalar articulations. Reorientating arthrodeses should be entertained where deformity has resulted in joint incongruity and, ultimately, posttraumatic arthritis. TAA may have a role as a motion-conserving procedure in combination with adjacent subtalar and midtarsal fusions.

Radiographic analysis of the Canale view for displaced talar neck fractures

Fractures of the talar neck comprise almost 50% of fractures of the talus and may result in significant long-term morbidity. It is of paramount importance to ensure anatomic reduction of the fracture not only for fracture healing but also for minimizing future posttraumatic arthritic sequelae. In addition to conventional radiographs and computed tomography scans, the Canale view has proven to be beneficial, especially when evaluating for varus displacement. This study investigated whether the original method of performing the Canale view could be modified for improved evaluation for varus displacement. Simulated talar neck fractures were created in 6 cadaveric specimens. These were placed into varying amounts of varus displacement; the Canale view was performed with progressive degrees of eversion, from 0° to 25°, resulting in 108 total views. Blinded evaluation was performed, and a ranking system was used to determine the most beneficial degree(s) of eversion for evaluating varus malalignment. Multiple statistical analyses were performed. A significant difference was seen between the high and low range of values of eversion. A significantly lower ranking was achieved with 10° of eversion. As opposed to a single view taken at 15° of eversion, a range of angles may be most beneficial in evaluating varus displacement in talar neck fractures.

[Fractures of the talus]

Fractures of the neck of the talus are a relatively uncommon fracture of the foot but they have potentially serious complications. This article details the Hawkins classification, operative treatment and indications, and complications of fractures of the neck of the talus. It also discusses the treatment of fractures of the body of the talus and talar head. An English full text version of this article is available at SpringerLink as supplemental.

ANALYSIS OF CLINICAL AND FUNCTIONAL OUTCOME AND COMPLICATIONS OF TALAR NECK FRACTURES

Objective: To evaluate the clinical, functional and radiographic results from talar neck fractures in patients treated at the Foot and Ankle Surgery Group of Santa Casa de Sao Paulo. Method: We evaluated 20 patients. The mean follow-up time was 71 months. One fracture was classified as Hawkins Type I, 12 as Hawkins type II, five as Hawkins type III, two as Hawkins type IV and four fractures were open. Results: One patient was treated conservatively, 16 were treated with open reduction and internal fixation (three with primary subtalar arthrodesis), one was treated with talectomy and two with tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis. The reduction obtained was anatomical in seven feet, acceptable in six feet and poor in four. Seven patients had early complications. There was one case of delayed consolidation and four of talar body osteonecrosis. Four patients required secondary reconstruction procedures. No significant radiographic impairment of the ankle joint was found in 62% of the patients and of the subtalar joint in 25%. Of the patients who did not undergo secondary procedures, 81% complained about the treated foot, 37.5% showed some deformity, 44% presented diminished sensitivity and 50% had to retire from work. The mean loss of motion in the ankle was 49%, and in the subtalar joint, 80%. The average AOFAS score was 73 points. Conclusion: Talar neck fractures are associated with high rates of clinical, functional and radiographic complications.

Talar neck and body fractures

Fractures of the talar neck and body are rare and serious injuries. The vast majority are either intra-articular or lead indirectly to an intra-articular incongruity through a dislocation at the talar neck. Because of the high energy needed to produce talar fractures, they are frequently seen in multiply injured and polytraumatised patients. Open fractures and fracture-dislocations are treated as emergencies. Preoperative planning of definite internal fixation requires CT scanning. To obtain a complete intra-operative overview allowing for anatomical reconstruction of the articular surfaces and the axial deviation bilateral approaches are usually necessary. Internal fixation is achieved with screws or mini-plates supplemented by temporary K-wire transfixation in cases of marked additional ligamentous instability. The clinical outcome after talar neck and body fractures is determined by the severity of the injury and the quality of reduction and internal fixation. The timing of definite internal fixation does not appear to affect the final result. The rates of avascular necrosis (AVN) correlate with the degree of initial dislocation. Only total AVN with collapse of the talar body leads to inferior results with the need for further surgery whilst prolonged immobilisation or offloading of the affected foot is not indicated for partial AVN. Talar malunions and non-unions after inadequate treatment of displaced fractures are debiliating conditions that should be treated by surgical correction. Treatment options include corrective osteotomy by recreating the former fracture with secondary fixation, free or vascularised bone grafting and salvage by realignment and fusion of the affected joint(s).

Ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures: a retrospective review of complications and sequelae

BACKGROUND

Ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures represent a rare combination injury that has only recently been reported in the literature with small case series.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the commonly observed fracture patterns, complications, and outcomes of a consecutive series of patients with ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures.

METHODS

Forty-five cases of ipsilateral talus and calcanal fractures were identified from an orthopaedic trauma registry at a University-based, level I trauma center for retrospective review.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Post-operative complications, the need for secondary surgery, and the visual analogus pain score.

RESULTS

Five patients were treated with an early below knee amputation (BKA). Five patients were treated with a primary subtalar arthrodesis. Twenty-eight of the 35 patients who did not undergo early BKA or primary subtalar arthrodesis developed subtalar arthritis. Five patients had deep wound complications. Four patients had talar body collapse from avascular necrosis. There were 13 open fractures of which 8 resulted in an eventual BKA. The mean visual analogus pain score for the patient population was 4.0.

CONCLUSION

The combination of ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures represents a severe injury pattern that is associated with significant morbidity. Subtalar arthritis was a common finding regardless of treatment. Open fractures frequently resulted in a below knee amputation.

Talus fractures: surgical principles

Surgical treatment of talus fractures can challenge even the most skilled foot and ankle surgeon. Complicated fracture patterns combined with joint dislocation of variable degrees require accurate assessment, sound understanding of principles of fracture care, and broad command of internal fixation techniques needed for successful surgical care. Elimination of unnecessary soft tissue dissection, a low threshold for surgical reduction, liberal use of malleolar osteotomy to expose body fracture, and detailed attention to fracture reduction and joint alignment are critical to the success of treatment. Even with the best surgical care complications are common and seem to correlate with injury severity and open injuries.

Clinical accuracy of imaging techniques for talar neck malunion

OBJECTIVES

To compare the ability of plain radiographs, computed tomography (CT), and radiostereometric analysis (RSA) to detect changes in talus fracture fragment position and alignment using an in vitro model.

METHODS

Eight cadaveric tali were osteotomized at the talar neck. RSA beads were inserted into each talar fragment. The talus was anatomically reduced and stabilized with a pair of 3.5-mm cortical screws. Plain radiographs and RSA films were obtained. The fragments were then displaced and rotated to create a varus and supination deformity, and screw fixation was repeated in nonanatomic alignment. Displacement and rotation were directly measured. Plain radiographs and RSA were repeated, and CT scans were obtained. The RSA measurements were interpreted in a blinded fashion by an experienced researcher. Two independent blinded orthopedic trauma surgeons measured the displacement and rotation using plain films and CT. The results from each radiographic measurement were compared to the measured displacement and rotation using ANOVA.

RESULTS

Plain radiographs, RSA, and CT all underestimated the measured talar neck displacement and rotation. Radiographs underestimated displacement by 5.0 +/- 2.9 mm, RSA by 5.9 +/- 2.0 mm, and CT scans by 2.4 +/- 4.8 mm (P < 0.05). Rotation was also underestimated by all 3 techniques, but the differences among techniques were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

The most accurate imaging technique to measure displacement in talar neck malunion is CT scan. RSA was less useful as an imaging technique in this study.

Diagnosis and management of the painful ankle/foot part 1: clinical anatomy and pathomechanics

Distinctive anatomical features can be witnessed in the ankle/foot complex, affording specific pathological conditions. Disorders of the ankle/foot complex are multifactoral and features in both the clinical anatomy and biomechanics contribute to the development of ankle/foot pain. The superior tibiofibular, distal tibiofibular, talocrural, subtalar, and midtarsal joint systems must all participate in function of the ankle/foot complex, as each biomechanically contributes to functional movements and clinical disorders witnessed in the lower extremity. A clinician's ability to effectively evaluate, diagnose, and treat the distal lower extremity is largely reliant upon a foundational understanding of the clinical anatomy and biomechanics of this complex complex. Thus, clinicians are encouraged to consider these distinctions when examining and diagnosing disorders of the ankle/foot.